What is the global role of the WTO Essay Example

What is the worldwide job of the WTO Essay The paper contains a conversation about the jobs of WTO. The jobs of WTO in advancing universal exchange, globalization, great interrelationships and question goals have been clarified. The foundation about the association has been furnished to interface its job with the command gave by its organizers. The current issues influencing the association, for example, the worldwide downturn of the 2007-2009 have been talked about to clarify how the association has mediated in the issue. Reactions of the association have been talked about towards the finish of the article to show the deficits influencing it.IntroductionMany pioneers of the world felt that after the World War II, exchange was the main instrument that could be utilized to invert the negative patterns of the war. They created multilateral associations to control exchange between various nations of the world. A few concessions to exchange were made to improve the part nations practice ideal exchange. The majority of the economi es had been shut previously and during the war to maintain a strategic distance from the gradually expanding influences of poor financial practices from outside nations. The foundation of the exchange understandings prompted the evacuation of many exchange boundaries which had been put. WTO was made to screen the exercises of exchange among the nations in the worldwide scene. Since its foundation, the association has assumed the job of arranging exchange understandings and helping the poor nations. The association has additionally helped in the monetary recuperation of numerous nations after the worldwide downturn that influenced the world economies as of late (World Trade Organization, 2010).Role of WTO in advancing universal tradeWorld Trade Organization (WTO) was made to control exchange between the part nations. Presently the association has 152 part nations. In excess of 95 percent of the world exchange is managed by WTO (Fergusson, 2008). After the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was canceled, WTO was set up. The association was established in 1995 to assume control over the exercises of GATT. After the World War II, nations talked about methods of advancing monetary improvement through exchange. Open exchange was among the key elements examined as an apparatus to upgrade exchange through expulsion of unfair exchange obstructions (World Trade Organization, 2010).WTO has its home office situated in Geneva. In excess of 625 staffs are utilized at the central station to control the exercises of the association. The association had a spending plan of around $152 million of every 2007 (Fergusson, 2008). A Director-General heads the association. Pascal Lamy of France as of now holds the situation of the Director-General. The part nations settle on choices about the tasks of the association. The staff of WTO has no command to settle on any choice. An agreement framework is utilized to settle on choices yet not a proper vote. A Ministerial Conferen ce settles on elevated level strategy choices. The gathering is made out of agents from the part nations and they meet following two years. The General Council has individuals drawn from all the part nations. They settle on operational choices and they meet each month.â â â The guidelines of WTO are overhauled normally through dealings (adjusts) to make new ones to suit the changing exchange atmosphere. The creating countries advantage more from the exchanges since the vast majority of the understandings are built up to improve the monetary status of the creating nations (World Trade Organization, 2010).The current circumstance of WTOA new round of multilateral exchange dealings was begun at the Doha meeting in 2001 during the fourth Ministerial Conference of WTO. Exchanges about exchange farming and exchange administrations have been continuing for an extensive stretch of time. More prominent exchange progression has been the primary plan of the rounds as the created countries look for a free market framework in the global market. The September eleventh fear based oppressors assault in America urged the part nations to set up arrangements about lessening the impacts of financial downturn and psychological warfare (Sally, 2003).Several provincial understandings have been set up under WTO to upgrade exchange. By 2007, 385 provincial exchange understandings had been made. As of now just 197 are operational (Fergusson, 2008). Exchange understandings are progressively successful in opening exchange between nations. They are simpler to arrange and give more advancement. Be that as it may, these dealings abuse the nondiscriminatory standards of WTO. Creating nations have been distraught by the foundation of the territorial understandings since they can't get to the business sectors in created nations (Sally, 2003; World Trade Organization 2010).The Doha meeting talked about the issues identifying with the worldwide downturn, fear based oppressors exercises and t he expanding number of exchange understandings. Different issues examined were improving exchange horticulture and exchange administrations. Concurrence on Trade Related Intellectual Property rights (TRIPS) was altered. The enthusiasm of the creating countries has been a significant worry since the created nations have ruled conversations in the past rounds (World Trade Organization, 2010).Role of WTO in exchange contest resolutionWTO is associated with settling questions concerning exchange between nations. As nations exchange with one another, contentions come up and WTO is utilized as a middle person to tackle such debates. The association has the ability to intercede exchange debates among the part nations. A portion of the exchange questions identify with terrible exchange approaches embraced by certain nations upon others. WTO goes about as a caretaker to global law and utilizations the worldwide law on exchange to authorize the universal exchange laws. Nations which ignore th e principles experience sanctions which may ruin them from working in the global exchange. All nations have a commitment to keep the principles gave by WTO (Information for Development Program. 2010).Role of WTO in improving universal relationsInternational relations allude to the conjunction between at least two nations. Private organizations, governments, worldwide speculators and different gatherings are associated with the exchanges of global business. WTO enables the nations of the world to connect calmly with one another. This has decreased clashes which may emerge because of contrasts in culture and different viewpoints. WTO enables universal pioneers to join in the battle against fear based oppression. Numerous nations have built up an arrangement of setting up a typical pool of thoughts. Partaking in thoughts among the nations has improved harmony on the planet. WTO settles debates emerging from awful exchange rehearses. Such debates if not controlled may result into war wh ich can cause a great deal of devastation. At the point when nations find a sense of contentment with one another, universal exchange turns out to be increasingly conceivable and trade of products and enterprises is upgraded. Great worldwide connections have upgraded monetary development and improvement of the nations of the world. Financial development and improvement is depicted as the expansion in the riches, foundation and the expectations for everyday comforts of the individuals living in a nation. At the point when nations find a sense of contentment with one another, they can partake appropriately in exchange and make more riches. Clashes between nations lead to devastation of property and poor exchange. WTO has empowered quiet concurrence among nations and this has been a factor which has advanced development and improvement of numerous economies (World Trade Organization, 2010).Role of WTO in globalizationWTO has been engaged with the globalization of numerous economies on the planet. Guideline about the worldwide exercises has been finished by WTO to guarantee charge rehearses are practiced by the nations of the world. Globalization alludes to the opening up of the universal limits and the trading of data between various nations. Globalization has improved the trading of advancements and information between nations. As economies become open more individuals with abilities can move to different nations where there is high market potential for their work. The open part alone can't oblige all the gifted work in a nation and exchange gives greater business chances to the individuals in a country. The presentation of the web has expanded productivity in exchange by empowering individuals move data all the more without any problem. Exchange draws in private venture and this creates increasingly capital in the economy. The total national output of a nation increments with increment in worldwide exchange. Development and advancement of an economy is quickene d by profession since more pay is created and the expectations for everyday comforts of the individuals are improved (Daniels, Radebaugh Sullivan, 2007).Poverty levels in both creating and created nations have declined by more prominent edges because of investment of nations in the universal exchange. Economies have gained more riches and the total national output of nations has improved. WTO has become the overseer of global law on exchange. The implementation of exchange laws about great exchange rehearses has been conceivable after the formation of WTO. The foundation of territorial and multilateral exchange understandings was experienced after WTO was made. This has supported numerous nations expel obstructions to exchange (World Trade Organization 2010).Regulation of the 2007-2009 monetary downturns by WTOThe budgetary emergency was started by poor loaning practices of the U.S. banks. The subprime contract industry fizzled and made numerous different segments of the economy com e up short. Subprime contracts are arrangements which have a high danger of default. Subprime borrowers are the individuals with low earnings and have a poor financial record. They have higher danger of default contrasted with the prime borrowers. The emergency began with the ascent in costs for essential items because of the universal increment in fuel costs. The costs of oil and food items expanded inside a brief span prompting a monetary emergency which influenced numerous individuals in the US. The p

Watching Television Has Adverse on Children and Should Be Restricted. Do You Accept This View Give Reason for or Against This Preposision free essay sample

By and by, our family has a TV. We don’t think it’s abhorrent. Together, we appreciate watching motion pictures, quality TV appears, and incidentally the news. In any case, it’s not on of course, and it’s unquestionably not our primary strategy for amusement. For as far back as three years living abroad, we haven’t got a TV signal, so our TV was held exclusively for watching DVDs. Presently that we’re back in the U. S. (by and large. This isn’t intended to sound holier-than-thou, as if anything short of that makes somebody an awful parent. I’m basically saying that we’ve found that it’s really not that hard to not rely upon TV as if it’s the altar of the front room. In the family unit where I grew up, TV was on as a matter of course, and I as a matter of fact observed a considerable amount (however I still in some way or another figured out how to peruse a ton and come out rather non-dependent on TV). Not long after I moved out of my parents’, I saw the amount I cherished the sound of†¦ nothing. That the boom of TV didn’t need to continually be on. I realized I needed that as the default in my own home. My better half and I are content with the parity we’ve found in our family; that we utilize the TV as a device in our home for both amusement and training, yet it’s not an icon or a dependence. However we realize it can without much of a stretch fall prey to the job of significant time-sucker and vitality squanderer. It’s imperative to remind ourselves persistently why it’s a good thought to not generally sit in front of the TV. What's more, that there are a lot of different activities. Here are my preferred reasons. 1. Staring at the TV corresponds with unexpected frailty, weight addition, and low vitality levels. Photograph via Caryn Werner It’s no mystery †being a habitual slouch adds to a great deal of our current culture’s weight increase and unexpected weakness. I was shocked by a portion of the insights I uncovered when I researched on this for my up and coming book. As indicated by the U. S. Place for Disease Control: â€Å"One-fourth of youngsters in America go through four hours or all the more sitting in front of the TV day by day and just 27 percent of understudies in grades 9 through 12 participate in moderate physical movement at any rate 30 minutes every day on at least five days of the week. Youth stoutness is a significant issue; we as a whole know this. Perhaps the greatest connection is the expansion in screen time †as per Norman Herr, teacher of science training at California State University,the normal youngster in America watches 1,680 minutes of TV for each week. That’s four hours out of each day. The wellbeing dangers are the equivalent fo r grown-ups and for those outside the U. S. On the off chance that we need to keep up a solid weight, keep our required vitality step up, and by and large deal with our bodies, we should keep the TV set off naturally. 2. Thoughtless TV-viewing permits a wide range of pictures and qualities I don’t essentially embrace into my home. Those youngsters that watch 28 hours of TV week after week? They’ll see a normal of 8. 000 killings when they finish primary school. They’ll likewise observe around 20,000 30-second ads every year. There are such huge numbers of different things I need filling my children’s minds than our culture’s fixation withthings and with graphically stunning pictures. I’d rather them appreciate reality. Leaving the TV on implies having next to no control of what data is invaded into your four dividers. On the off chance that you wouldn’t need those pictures embellishing your dividers, or in the event that you wouldn’t need that specific demonstration done on your floor, at that point why show it on a screen for you to watch? 3. Keeping TV viewing down to a negligible level implies that when it’s on, it’s quality. Photograph from Ocean’s 12 This carries me to the subject of deliberate TV viewing. At the point when you don’t have it on as a matter of course, sitting in front of the TV is somuch increasingly agreeable. You’re being engaged or instructed by something you’re permitting into your home, that passes your investigation. Sitting in front of the TV overall family four hours out of each week, rather than 28, implies that those four hours are significantly more important. Our children love â€Å"family film night,† where once every week we select one film to plunk down and observe together, without taking any kind of action else. We diminish the lights, pop popcorn, and cuddle together on the sofa. On the off chance that we’re unwinding before the TV some other time, it’s to watch a couple of shows we’re intentionally viewing in light of the fact that that’s why we turned the TV on in any case. At the point when the show closes, the TV gets killed. 4. It’s progressively tranquil, unwinding, and less unpleasant when the TV is off as a matter of course. Television is boisterous. Ads shout at you to purchase their (generally) inconsequential items, clamor from around the globe mentions to you what you’ve missed over the most recent ten minutes, and pictures turn and hum and expert by you quicker than your cerebrum can process them. At the point when TV is on constantly, you pass up living gradually. You don’t hear the feathered creatures very too. It’s harder to have a discussion. So, it’s a poor trade for genuine †and genuine is significantly more serene without media on out of sight as a matter of course. . There are just other fun activities. Photograph by Robert S. Donovan This is presumably my most grounded explanation behind not needing TV on constantly. I have an excessive number of things I’d rather do! Whenever I’m watching something on TV, I’m intentionally decidi ng to do that as opposed to something different. I love to sew, to peruse, to adorn, to play with my children. My children love to investigate and meander outside, to enable me to cook, to play with their companions. For what reason would I exchange watching somebody else’s (counterfeit) life for experienced my own? As a rule, there genuinely are a larger number of things I’d preferably do over sit in front of the TV. When you escape the propensity for continually having it on,it’s really not that alluring any longer. It’s only one more choice in the bunch of decisions out there to do. Furthermore, there are bounty, trust me. On the off chance that your children gripe of being exhausted, that’s alright. It’s something worth being thankful for to be exhausted †it makes them think bigger; it compels them to consider new ideas; it pushes them to do things they don’t typically do. I urge youâ€try to keep your TV killed for seven days, and accomplish something different. I know you’ve got an entire rundown of things you need to do when you have the opportunity. You can do it!

10 ft from Hasan Minhaj

10 ft from Hasan Minhaj This past summer, Hasan Minhaj FINALLY made his way to my hometown on his homecoming tour. Keep in mind, this is a person I’ve been wanting to see in person since basically forever ago. Hasan Minhaj? In MY town. Blessing us with 72 minutes of geniously scripted reflective comedy? How could I miss something as paramount as that? (Turns out I could. Two words: SOLD OUT). When I casually scrolled upon his face on an MIT Facebook event, I went hysterical to say the least. Yall! Second chances actually do exist! They’re out there! For you and you and you As the sun set above the MIT campus last Saturday, I excitedly made my way to Kresge. Three whole hours before the event began. Front row seats were necessary, even if it meant psetting out in the cold. I’ll have you know, I was the fifth person in line (pretty good for an amateur like myself, right?). When Hasan finally made his way onto the stage, his face glowing with the auditorium lights, my excitement and energy was not alone. The night was spent with great laughter, deep questions and a good amount of serious reflection. After a thirty minute act geared around refugee and immigration conversations, the QA session gave us the opportunity to interact with Hasan as his unscripted and genuine self. We discovered that Hasan is worth ten goats, really likes chicken seekh kabobs, did Kumon till freshman year of high school, uses coconut oil (ayy, Parachute) to keep his hair on fleek and gives great hugs. And yes, I asked for you. Me: “If Hasan were a unit of measure, what would it measure?” Hasan: “Man you MIT kids ask the hardest questions. I don’t know, what do you think?” Me: “Umm, I don’t know… inspiration? Yes, I would say inspiration for sure!” Random person in the crowd: Kabobs! He would measure Kabobs! I’ll leave it up to you as to which answer is the better one, but I definitely applaud said random person in the crowd. The most memorable moment of the night, however, was when a student asked the following: “If you could ask an MIT student any question, what would it be?” To which Hasan replied these incredibly powerful, meaningful, heart-warming and unforgettable words (for best effect, picture him saying this with a contagious smile and big eyes): “ What does it feel like to know you’ve made it? It must feel so dope.” Image by Joshua Charles Woodward In that moment, I took a turn in my seat and looked at all the people around me. I looked at the faces bursting with pride, faces that have become familiar. And I thought to myself, youre right Hasan. It is pretty dope. Not for the obvious reasons though. It’s the people here and their hearts that make it dope. Its being able to have a heart-to-heart with anyone and everyone. Its being able to stand up for whats right without fear or second thought. Its acknowledging the issues that scar our world. Its working together to make it better. It’s working hard and playing hard. It’s giving support and taking support. Its achieving the American dream. Its sitting in an auditorium and celebrating a man that is the American dream. Youre right Hasan Minhaj, it is pretty dope. Me (left) with some cool friends. Image by Joshua Charles Woodward With that, I think it would only be appropriate to leave you with some beautiful words from the man himself ( I hope you find in them the same magic I do): “You shouldnt worry about refugees accepting American values, but Americans accepting American values.” “But if [the refugees] are willing to wait in line for 2 and a half years, then we owe it to them to look over their application because at some point someone looked over ours too.” *cue finger snaps* Post Tagged #Unit of Measure

Gender Stereotypes In Mulan - 1673 Words

The way that groups are represented in the media often has a significant impact on how these groups are viewed in reality. The media is very powerful when it comes to raising awareness about certain groups, which is important to understand. What the media portrays is often what is perceived. Instead of using the media to strengthen stereotypes among people, the media should be used to stop stereotyping once and for all. While gender stereotypes do unfortunately exist, representations of gender in pop culture can have a positive impact by allowing society to see these stereotypes being broken. In the Disney classic, Mulan, several gender stereotypes are portrayed throughout the film. Mulan, the main character, faces several expectations†¦show more content†¦Having movies like Mulan in pop culture teaches people that it is not necessary to follow societies expectations and live by what stereotypes say. Another movie that defies gender roles is She’s the Man, starring Amanda Bynes. Bynes plays the main character, Viola Hastings, a tomboy that enjoys playing soccer more than wearing heels and dresses. Viola deals with the expectations her mother places on her to be a very feminine debutante. She does not fit the stereotype of being very girly and instead seems like one of the guys. In the movie, the girls’ soccer team is cut from the school, so Viola tries to play for the boys’ team. The coach of the boys’ team laughs at her, saying that it is a scientific fact that girls are not as fast or cannot beat boys. After that rejection, Viola decides to dress up as her twin brother, who is out of the country, and pose as him in his school. She joins the boys’ soccer team at this new school and defeats her old school’s soccer team. Viola proves that girls can do anything that guys can do, and can do them better. This movie shows how gender stereotyp es should not exist because there should not be limitations to how one gender should behave. Displaying gender representation in pop culture raises awareness to how it is wrong that a girl needs to pretend to be a guy to be taken seriously in society. It is still widely viewed today that women are very weak and lesser than men. The feminine hygiene brand,Show MoreRelatedGender Stereotypes In Disneys Mulan1172 Words   |  5 PagesDisney’s Mulan From the minute one is born the division between genders is placed. The phrases â€Å"act like a lady† or â€Å"be a man† become everyday practices and lifelong slogans. Fairy tales are always focused on women who play the beautiful damsel in distress persona and on men who play the handsome knight coming in to save them. Whether you are female or male, it is important to remember that these fixed characteristics placed on genders are never to be reinforced. In a world full of gender stereotypesRead MoreAnalysis Of Mulan s A Prince Will Come And Save You1610 Words   |  7 PagesMulan was filmed in 1998 during the third wave of feminism, which is the â€Å"advocacy of women s rights on the grounds of political, social, and economic equality to men† (dictionary). Mulan isn’t a typical princess, but a women who saves her father from going to war with the Huns. Disney does stray away from the typical â€Å"damsel in distress† storyline and brings a new foundation of ideas to the big screen. Where Sleeping Beauty the idea of â€Å"a prince will come† and save you, to Mulan who challengesRead MoreMul An American Animated Musical Released By Disney1019 Words   |  5 PagesMulan is an American animated musical released by Disney in 1998 during the third wave of feminism. This would explain why at first glance, Mulan appears to be a feminist film encouraging the empowerment of women. Despite positive feminist images, the film is not free from gender stereotypes. While the film is progressive by straying from the usual â€Å"damsel in distress† storyline, a closer analysis shows that it isn’t as feminist as it first appears. Mulan reinforces a masculine construction ofRead MoreChapter Analysis : Mulan Essay1252 Words   |  6 PagesEnglish 1301 20 October 2016 Bring Honor to us all In Walt Disney’s, Mulan, the classic story tells the tale of a young woman in China who decides step up and fight in fear that her disabled father will be drafted. As a girl living under a patriarchal regime, she is aware that she is not allowed to serve. Mulan defies the odds of a stereotypical girls by impersonating a man and sets off to train with the other recruits. As Mulan overcomes many challenges, she uses her talents to help defeat the HunsRead MoreMulan Essay1541 Words   |  7 Pages1998 Disney film, Mulan, and the 2016 Disney film, Moana, people may suggest that both are progressive feminist films that accurately depict their individual cultures, while uplifting the women in these films. However, with further analysis, Mulan consists of not only sexist views towards women, but also underlines stereotypical gender roles that men are greater than women. Moreover, Moana reflects a change of the conventional woman in Disney films by rejecting the female stereotypes as well as creatingRead MoreGender Representation Of Female Gender Roles Affect Society Through Social Oppression Of The Minority Group1110 Words   |  5 Pagespositive empowerment of females alike, Mulan in fact does not encourage the individual empowerment of women through separation of traditional gender stereotypes. In fact, Mulan emphasizes the roles between binary genders that ensure privilege of men over women. Additionally, the film shows how such stereotypical gender roles affect society through social oppression of the minority group. Throughout the film, it is obvious that, although it is possible to have gender performativity, there is disempowermentRead MoreGender Roles Of A Young Girl Saving China From The Huns1429 Words   |  6 Pages   Ã‚  Ã‚   Within Disney’s Mulan, gender roles, linguistic differences, and racial concepts play a substantial role in telling the story of a young girl saving China from the Huns. At first glance, while the film may utilize an innocent plotline typically geared for young children, stereotypes and racist themes abound, prompting the question of how much of the movie is authentic, and how much of the film is the American perspective on Chinese culture. After an anthropological analysis of the film, it isRead MoreGender Roles And Social Expectations1231 Words   |  5 Pagesnot notice like gender roles and social expectations. Even though children may not realize the social expectations aspect incorporated into movies they still absorb those lessons like a sponge. They learn these aspects by seeing them as role models, they have the desire to become that person. For an example, during Halloween we see hundreds of little girls dressing up like their favorite princess. They see these princesses as role models since little girls can relate them to by gender. Depending onRead MoreOne Woman Rescues An Entire Nation : Mulan Defies Traditional Gender1106 Words   |  5 PagesOne Woman Rescues an Entire Nation: Mulan Defies Traditional Gender Roles Becomes a Hero What does it mean to be a man or woman, girl or boy? Who creates these gender constraints and reinforces these roles within a society? Gender is a social construct that is manufactured by the media in order to guide the masses towards thinking and behaving in a way that is perceived to be accurate. â€Å"Gender is not something we are born with, and not something we have, but something we do—something we perform†Read MoreThe Movie Mulan 883 Words   |  4 PagesMulan is an animated film that was released in 1998 from Disney during third wave feminism, which features an Asian woman protagonist. She is a Disney princess, but at first glance you wouldn’t think so. Mulan is introduced as a clumsy tomboy who did not think she would ever bring honor to her family. In order to accomplish said honor, she would have to by being the perfect bride, in accordance with the matchmaker. The film has a great amount of feminist ideals, however, it doesn’t leave out stere otypical

Existential There Definition and Examples

The use of the expletive there  in front of a verb—usually a form of be—to assert that someone or something exists. The construction as a whole is called an ​existential sentence. Existential there,  also known as  nonreferential  there, is entirely different from there used as a place adverb: It has no locative meaning, as can be seen by the contrast: Theres a sheep over there. Also, existential there carries no emphasis at all, whereas the adverb does: There he is (Rediscover Grammar, 2003). Examples and Observations There is a river that runs from Pittsburgh down into West Virginia.There is a cult of ignorance in the United States. (Isaac Asimov)Why there is a large patch in the hollow of his left breast as bare as a snail out of its shell.(J.R.R. Tolkien, The Hobbit, 1937)Ah, there is a horrible witch sitting in the house, who spat on me and scratched my face with her long claws. (Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm, The Bremen Town Musicians, 1812)Theres a storm coming, Mr. Wayne. (Anne Hathaway as Selina Kyle in The Dark Knight Rises, 2012)Theres good reasons to stick to what you know in this world. (Patricia Hall, Dead Reckoning. St. Martins Press, 2003)There are good reasons why warfare needs to be regulated.In the Garden of Eden there was a Tree, Chef said, passing him the pipe. (Stephen King, Under the Dome. Scribner, 2009)There were flowers: delphiniums, sweet peas, bunches of lilac; and carnations, masses of carnations. (Virginia Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, 1925)The existential there has the status of a dummy subject fulfilling the grammatical but not the semantic function of the subject. (Jiřà ­ Rambousek and Jana Chamonikolasovà ¡, The Existential There-Construction in Czech Translation. Incorporating Corpora: The Linguist and the Translator, ed. by Gunilla M. Anderman and Margaret Rogers. Multilingual Matters, 2008)Existential there has commonly been treated in transformational grammar in terms of a transformation—​There-insertion—that inserts ​there in subject position . . . and moves the original subject into the V in a position immediately following the verb  . . .. (James D. McCawley, The Syntactic Phenomena of English, 2nd ed. University of Chicago Press, 1998) Existential There vs. Referential There The word there is often called nonreferential or existential, there. As shown in (11), there fills the subject position and does not refer to anything previously mentioned. (11) There is a unicorn in the garden. ( A unicorn is in the garden.) Note that there is followed by a form of the copular be and by an NP (noun phrase) that would be the subject if the sentence did not include there. Nonreferential there can be distinguished from referential there by the fact that it fills the subject position in a clause. Referential there, in contrast, can occur in many positions in a sentence. Nonreferential there passes the three tests of subjecthood... .: It undergoes subject-aux inversion, as shown in (12a); it reappears in tags, as in (12b); and it contracts with copular be in speech and informal writing, as in (12c). (12a) Are there any cookies left?(12b) There was another road, wasnt there?(12c) Theres something we need to talk about. (Ron Cowan, The Teachers Grammar of English. Cambridge University Press, 2008) Omission of Existential There Existential there may be omitted when a locative or directional Adjunct is in initial position: Below the castle (there) stretches a vast plain.Out of the mist (there) loomed a strange shape. Without there such clauses are very close semantically to reversed circumstantial clauses. However, the addition of a tag question—with there, not a personal pronoun (Close to the beach stands a hotel, doesnt there? *doesnt it?)—suggests that they are in fact existentials. (Angela Downing, English Grammar: A University Course, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2006)

Skeever Free Essays

By the nine divines! What did you just say about me, you little skeeverbutt? I’ll have you know I graduated top of my class in the College of Winterhold, and I’ve been know to cast one hell of a fireball, and I have over 300 confirmed summons. I am trained in daedric warfare and I’m the swords master of the entire Imperial forces. You are nothing to me but just another target. We will write a custom essay sample on Skeever or any similar topic only for you Order Now I will make you beg to Akatosh as I bend you over like a common whelp, mark my words, on my oath as the Dovakin. You think you can come into my mind though this magic device and insult me? Think again,scum. As we speak I have every assassin and thief across all of Tamriel looking for your initial position so you better prepare for the storm atronach,you drauger. The storm atronach that wipes out the pathetic little husk you call your life. I can be anywhere, anytime, and I can kill you in over seven hundred ways, and that’s just with my dragon shouts! Not only am I extensively trained in archery and horseback riding, but I have access to the entire congregation of the thieves guild, dark brotherhood, Mages college, and untold hordes of deadric warriors, and I will use every one of them to banish you to the plane of oblivion.. If only you could have had the clairvoyance to see what divine retribution your little â€Å"clever† runes were about to bring down upon you, maybe you would have held your tongue you dark skin. But you couldn’t, you didn’t, and now you’re paying the price, you goddamn idiot. I will become the embodiment of Mehrunes Dagon, and open a portal to oblivion the likes of which you have never seen. You’re fucking dead, milk-drinker. How to cite Skeever, Papers

Essay about Analyzing Chilrdren Child Observation Essay Example For Students

Essay about Analyzing Chilrdren: Child Observation Essay Children are some of the most interesting creatures on Earth. At any moment they may do something that makes you laugh. The next moment they may do something that makes you want to crawl under your seat in embarrassment. That’s what drew me to them. I’m around adults all day and all night since starting college. I wanted to sit and observe God’s most precious creation in action. My mother-in-law’s home was the most obvious choice for my observation. She keeps several children, including my sixteen month old son, in her home daycare business. All of the children who are kept there are little boys ages three or under. I chose Friday, August 28, 2009 to analyze how the children interact not only with each other, but also with their environment. Upon beginning my initial observation, there were six children playing on my mother-in-law’s front porch. When I walked up to the porch, the children greeted me with the usual, â€Å"Hey Mr. Jeff.† I replied with, â€Å"Hi boys, what are you doing today?†(Boyd). The boys did not have a clue that I was about to embark on a quest for knowledge about them, but one of them did ask me, â€Å"What are you going to do with that pencil and paper?† As I started to take notes, Reid, age 7 months, was in the stroller on the porch. Karson, my sixteen month old, was pulling on the gate, Gage and Austin both there, were sitting on the top of a container and were pretending to cook me some lunch. Brayden, the other three year old was sitting in one of the rocking chairs. As I looked down at my paper and then looked up again it was as if the whole scene was changed in an instant. Karson had ventured off to the rails on the porch and had managed to stick his head through them, turn his head to the side. .in the road and saying some other lingo that only he is able to interpret. In sitting here watching these children for only an hour I have pondered many ideas about how children communicate, how they build relationships, how they play and interact with other children of the same gender and age. Child psychologist Kenneth N. Condrell, Ph.D. states in his book Wimpy Parenting from Toddler to Teen, at this age the average toddler is a whirlwind of activity, and everything is an adventure. The world is all brand new to them and they don’t know where to begin. Toddlers are free spirits and since they are still babies everything is smelled and tasted. They have not interest in toilet training, and forget self-control, because toddlers have no conscience yet. They operate on the pleasure principle: if it feels good and it is fun, they want to do it (Condrell).

Binomial Table for n=2, n=3, n=4, n=5 and n=6

Binomial Table for n=2, n=3, n=4, n=5 and n=6 One important discrete random variable is a binomial random variable. The distribution of this type of variable, referred to as the binomial distribution, is completely determined by two parameters: n   and p.   Here n is the number of trials and p is the probability of success. The tables below are for n 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. The probabilities in each are rounded to three decimal places. Before using the table, it is important to determine if a binomial distribution should be used. In order to use this type of distribution, we must make sure that the following conditions are met: We have a finite number of observations or trials.The outcome of teach trial can be classified as either a success or a failure.The probability of success remains constant.The observations are independent of one another. The binomial distribution gives the probability of r successes in an experiment with a total of n independent trials, each having probability of success p.  Ã‚   Probabilities are calculated by the formula C(n, r)pr(1 - p)n - r where C(n, r) is the formula for combinations. Each entry in the table is arranged by the values of p and of r.   There is a different table for each value of n.   Other Tables For other binomial distribution tables: n 7 to 9, n 10 to 11.   For situations in which np  and n(1 - p) are greater than or equal to 10, we can use the normal approximation to the binomial distribution.   In this case, the approximation is very good and does not require the calculation of binomial coefficients.   This provides a great advantage because these binomial calculations can be quite involved. Example To see how to use the table, we will consider the following example from genetics.   Suppose that we are interested in studying the offspring of two parents who we know both have a recessive and dominant gene.   The probability that an offspring will inherit two copies of the recessive gene (and hence have the recessive trait) is 1/4.   Suppose we want to consider the probability that a certain number of children in a six-member family possesses this trait.   Let X be the number of children with this trait.   We look at the table for n 6 and the column with p 0.25, and see the following: 0.178, 0.356, 0.297, 0.132, 0.033, 0.004, 0.000 This means for our example that P(X 0) 17.8%, which is the probability that none of the children has the recessive trait.P(X 1) 35.6%, which is the probability that one of the children has the recessive trait.P(X 2) 29.7%, which is the probability that two of the children have the recessive trait.P(X 3) 13.2%, which is the probability that three of the children have the recessive trait.P(X 4) 3.3%, which is the probability that four of the children have the recessive trait.P(X 5) 0.4%, which is the probability that five of the children have the recessive trait. Tables for n2 to n6 n 2 p .01 .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 r 0 .980 .902 .810 .723 .640 .563 .490 .423 .360 .303 .250 .203 .160 .123 .090 .063 .040 .023 .010 .002 1 .020 .095 .180 .255 .320 .375 .420 .455 .480 .495 .500 .495 .480 .455 .420 .375 .320 .255 .180 .095 2 .000 .002 .010 .023 .040 .063 .090 .123 .160 .203 .250 .303 .360 .423 .490 .563 .640 .723 .810 .902 n 3 p .01 .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 r 0 .970 .857 .729 .614 .512 .422 .343 .275 .216 .166 .125 .091 .064 .043 .027 .016 .008 .003 .001 .000 1 .029 .135 .243 .325 .384 .422 .441 .444 .432 .408 .375 .334 .288 .239 .189 .141 .096 .057 .027 .007 2 .000 .007 .027 .057 .096 .141 .189 .239 .288 .334 .375 .408 .432 .444 .441 .422 .384 .325 .243 .135 3 .000 .000 .001 .003 .008 .016 .027 .043 .064 .091 .125 .166 .216 .275 .343 .422 .512 .614 .729 .857 n 4 p .01 .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 r 0 .961 .815 .656 .522 .410 .316 .240 .179 .130 .092 .062 .041 .026 .015 .008 .004 .002 .001 .000 .000 1 .039 .171 .292 .368 .410 .422 .412 .384 .346 .300 .250 .200 .154 .112 .076 .047 .026 .011 .004 .000 2 .001 .014 .049 .098 .154 .211 .265 .311 .346 .368 .375 .368 .346 .311 .265 .211 .154 .098 .049 .014 3 .000 .000 .004 .011 .026 .047 .076 .112 .154 .200 .250 .300 .346 .384 .412 .422 .410 .368 .292 .171 4 .000 .000 .000 .001 .002 .004 .008 .015 .026 .041 .062 .092 .130 .179 .240 .316 .410 .522 .656 .815 n 5 p .01 .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 r 0 .951 .774 .590 .444 .328 .237 .168 .116 .078 .050 .031 .019 .010 .005 .002 .001 .000 .000 .000 .000 1 .048 .204 .328 .392 .410 .396 .360 .312 .259 .206 .156 .113 .077 .049 .028 .015 .006 .002 .000 .000 2 .001 .021 .073 .138 .205 .264 .309 .336 .346 .337 .312 .276 .230 .181 .132 .088 .051 .024 .008 .001 3 .000 .001 .008 .024 .051 .088 .132 .181 .230 .276 .312 .337 .346 .336 .309 .264 .205 .138 .073 .021 4 .000 .000 .000 .002 .006 .015 .028 .049 .077 .113 .156 .206 .259 .312 .360 .396 .410 .392 .328 .204 5 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .001 .002 .005 .010 .019 .031 .050 .078 .116 .168 .237 .328 .444 .590 .774 n 6 p .01 .05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 .55 .60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85 .90 .95 r 0 .941 .735 .531 .377 .262 .178 .118 .075 .047 .028 .016 .008 .004 .002 .001 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 1 .057 .232 .354 .399 .393 .356 .303 .244 .187 .136 .094 .061 .037 .020 .010 .004 .002 .000 .000 .000 2 .001 .031 .098 .176 .246 .297 .324 .328 .311 .278 .234 .186 .138 .095 .060 .033 .015 .006 .001 .000 3 .000 .002 .015 .042 .082 .132 .185 .236 .276 .303 .312 .303 .276 .236 .185 .132 .082 .042 .015 .002 4 .000 .000 .001 .006 .015 .033 .060 .095 .138 .186 .234 .278 .311 .328 .324 .297 .246 .176 .098 .031 5 .000 .000 .000 .000 .002 .004 .010 .020 .037 .061 .094 .136 .187 .244 .303 .356 .393 .399 .354 .232 6 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .001 .002 .004 .008 .016 .028 .047 .075 .118 .178 .262 .377 .531 .735

Commedia dellArte essays

Commedia dellArte essays Drama, Commedia dellArte Assignment. Commedia dellArte, the known name for a group of professional actors who would travel together around Europe. These professional actors helped nurture and grow some of the worlds most commonly used acting styles and ideas. They defined and set the standard of skills that an actor needs to develope and use in drama. They also created succesful character personalitys, that are still used in the world of theatre in todays modern world. If it were not for these actors the standard of theatre couldve never reached the level of what it is today. The actors would travel the countryside and visit towns and perform I the Village Square. Often the play would be about political issues or problems that were currently happening in the village at that present time. But the usual topic is that of the two lovers, not being able to marry, in an epic tale of jealousy or pride, similar to that of William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet. These Lovers were played by younger people, who did not were masks like the other characters. These masks symbolised a certain character, and their personality traits. This was used to help the audience maybe gain knowledge of what is happening and understand the story better, by the way one character might seem vein and self indulgent because of his stride and speech. Which would work with his large nose to show that he is not what he thinks he is, but still sees himself above the common person. Commedia dellArte, is seen as possibly being one of the most successful types of theatre that has been put together, with the right number of characters with the right amount of range in their personalitys to cook up many multiple performances of which to entertain people. Many performing artists similar to that of Commedia dellArte, have shown their similarities and skill in using character traits and personalitys to crea ...

Iraqi Legal System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Iraqi Legal System - Essay Example Iraq’s legal system is based on Sunni and Shii fiqh sects and this is applied through the Sharia courts. Its legal system is an integrated form of various laws and customs; such as the constitutional law, legislation and statutory provisions, judicial precedents, customs, and juridical opinions. The Hanafi School of fiqh, originated in Iraq. In the 17th century, Iraq came under Ottoman rule, which introduced several new codes into Iraq’s legal system. These included civil, penal and commercial codes based on the European legal systems. After World War I, British Mandate was established in the region. This brought to an end, the control exercised by the Turkish Ottomans on Iraq. As such, Ottomans could not implement the Ottoman Law of Family Rights (OLFR) 1917 in Iraq (Legal History). The British administrators did not implement the OLFR because it was not a part of local law. In addition, there were an equal number of Shia and Sunni members in Iraq. After the Arab Revolt, King Faisal established a kingdom in Iraq in the year 1921. In 1932, Iraq obtained full independence from the British. The monarchy of King Faisal was overthrown in 1958, by a military coup; and Iraq became a republic. The Iraqi Law of Personal Status provides that the courts should deliver judgments, in accordance with the principles of Islamic Sharia law. Thus, the customary Islamic Sharia law constitutes the source of law in Iraq. This was confirmed by Article 1 of the Civil Code (Legal History). There are two important schools of fiqh in Iraq, namely the Jafari and Hanafi schools. In addition, Iraq contains other religious minority groups, like the Christians, Jews and Yezidis. It adopted a provisional constitution on 22 September 1968, and Article 4 of this constitution, declares Islam to be the state religion (Legal History). Iraq has adopted a legal system that is founded on European civil and Islamic law. However,

Global currency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global currency - Essay Example From the chart above, there are signs that the Rand attempts to gain against the US Dollar periodically by moving down to around 6.5 to a Dollar. However, in most of the times, it fluctuates and reaches highs of about 7.3 against the Dollar. Over the past month or so though, the Rand has really lost grounds to the US Dollar and has risen to highs of about 8.4 per Dollar. This indicates that there is potential for further escalations in the value of the Dollar against the Rand. The Rand can therefore be seen as a weaker currency in relation to the US Dollar and on the global markets. Figure 2 above shows the relationship between the South African Rand and the European common currency, the Euro. It is also seen that the Euro is stronger than the Rand. On the average, the Rand trades at about 9.5 to the Euro. Although there were times that the Rand gained and got to almost 8.5 to the Euro, most of the time, the Rand remains above the 9.5 mark. However, in the past three months, the Euro has strengthened further at levels over R10 per Euro. It is currently trading at 11 Rands per Euro. This shows that there is room for further appreciation of the Euro against the Rands. Aliber stated in 1970 that â€Å"the stronger a countrys currency, the more likely it is to invest in another country and the weaker the currency, the less likely it is to invest in another country† (Goldstein,1991 p1976). This assumption Aliber made is tried and tested in numerous empirical tests. Aliber & Click (1993, p97) identifies that there is a capital market bias towards businesses from a stronger currency nation. In this case, it will be better for a US based business to operate in South Africa. Sharan (2002, p70) explains that the reason why businesses from countries with stronger currencies succeed in weaker currency nation is that it is much more easier to capitalize income in a weaker

Memory Storage of Psychological Present and Past Events

Memory Storage of Psychological Present and Past Events Table of Contents (Jump to) 1. Introduction: 2. Stages involved in learning and memory based on the multi-store approach 3. Differences between short term and long term memory 3.1 Short Term Memory: 3.2 Long Term Memory: 4. Functions of memory system in human interactions based on theories of memories: 4.1 Memory Encoding: 4.2 Memory Consolidation: 4.3 Memory Storage: 4.4 Memory Recall/Retrieval: 5. Conclusion References: 1. Introduction: Memory is known as the encoding, storing, retaining and recalling of the information in the human brain (Fukuda and Vogel, 2010). It is the ability of remembering of the past events, and the process to recall past facts, impressions, skills, experiences, and habits (Basden, 2000). Short-term memory refers as the scratch-pad for recalling of past information. Despite the everyday experiences it likes as long-term memory that lasts short time, and able of storing of unlimited amount of information almost indefinitely. At the time of recalling, neural activity model acts used in generating of the response to definite event, resonating of the brains discernment of the real event. Memories are not stored in brains in such a collection of self-sufficient pictures and video clips, as books on library abandons, or even as thinking of collage or a tangram puzzle, because these consists of the different elements storing dissimilar parts to the brain related with the organizations, associations as well as networks. In this context, this assignment is organised into three sections. The first section reveals the stages engaged in learning and memory according to the multi-store approach; the second section works on the differences between short term and long term memory; and the last section discusses the various functions of memory. 2. Stages involved in learning and memory based on the multi-store approach In psychology, memory is the procedure of information encoding, storing, and retrieving (Anyang, 2005). Basically, the new English word consists of memory that generated to us which coming from the memories of Anglo France and ultimately from the Latin me moral and memo, meaning mindful or remembering (Auyang, 2001). The effect or influence of the human behavior in case of past experience is thought of terms of memories. Encoding is allowed of the information from the external world for reaching of the 5th senses. Those are known as physical and chemical effect. The information of different things must be altered that is put into the encoded process in the 1st step of memories. It is the capability of remembering the past events and the ability to recall experienced facts, impressions, assistances, experiences as well as habits. The 2nd step of the memories’ procedures is the storing (Fukuda and Vogel, 2010). This entails that information is maintained for the future time periods. Lastly, retrieving of the storing information is the 3rd step of the memories. The retrieved information is returned and posted to the sense. Different retrieved information is considered as effective because of the information gathered and other challenges in order to remember and store information. It can be for the demand level of the situation created. It can clearly be stated that, memory is connected to but distinct from learning, which is the process of acquiring knowledge of the world and modifying subsequent behavior (Laird, 1920). During the learning process, neurons due to the production of the defined past events are changed as there is the inclination for firing in the field of memories. The explanation is as follows, a new language is learnt by studying it, but speaking is done by using memory to retrieve the words that are learned. Childhood is the period from birth to 10 years. One does not remember everything that happened in this childhood, but the important events are stored in the subconscious mind. Childhood is a mixture of joy and sorrows. When a man is sick of the present he seeks relief in the past and fondly recalls the memories of childhood (Michael, 1992). In fact, learning fact is the important issues of the memories because the fact tells us storing and retrieving of the past information the learning is ter med as the extension of the memories. Besides this, computer is used in the concept of memories. The storing of different data and information and capacity of this is known as the recalling concept of memories. 3. Differences between short term and long term memory The memory model tells that, the encoding process, consolidating process, storing process, and retrieving and recalling process are known as the memory process (Don, 1971). Considering these, two types of memories are available there including short term and long term memory. The short term memory and long term memory are the important part of the learning of the memory concept. 3.1 Short Term Memory: Short term memories are the memories known as the scratch pad (Yates, 1966). These terms are for the recalling past events, experiences, facts for a future short term period. The short term memories are short in term of remembering (James, 2008). The small and little amount of information is retrieved and storing for a shorter period of the life cycles. The short term memories are also known as the temporary memory. A limited and short capacity and ability of the remembering of past information is in the short term memories. It is called as the present reasoning condition and process (Izquierdo, 1998). It holds a smaller amount of information. It is a call up of the past information. In the short term memories, the brain of the human beings can flesh and store and retried for the shorter time. The short term memories are the smallest simple and easy expedient. The short term memories are served as the temporary storing of the past information, events, class, experiences, data’ s and past facts (Locke, 1971). The short term memories are also used as the working memories concept of the human being perspective. The short term memories are explained in the law of millers. The short term memories are the stage of the storing, repetition, and the reinforcing of the human remembering of the events. The classification of the definition of the short term memories is the three parts. These three parts of the human short term memories are given bellow: Duration of the keeping events in mind: 0- 12 seconds in the time scale Capacity of the items or events of storing information: 9 +/- 4 events or items or data The encoding process of the short term memories: it is the auditor in terms The important less things are stored (Micheal.1990). In the short term memories, the small capacity of the events and information is required. The short term memories are paying less importance and attention on the remembering of the events. In the short term memories, less interference is given on focusing point. 3.2 Long Term Memory: The long term memory refers to the storing of the past experiences, events, facts, data and information for an unlimited time scale of the human life cycles (James, 2008). The events and information and experiences are gathered and stored and retrieved in the latter period. In the long term memories the capacity of the storage are the unlimited in terms. The long term memories do not overlap from the mind immediately but overlap for the latter period of the time scale of the human life. The long term memories are also known as the lasted memory cycles (Bartlett, 1932). An unlimited and long and large capacity and ability of the remembering of past information included in the long term memories. It is called as the future reasoning condition and process. It holds a larger amount of information. It is not known as calls up of the past information but known as the expressing of the past information. The physical changes are happened in case of the remembering of the past events and info rmation. In the long term memories the brain of the human beings cannot flesh and but the position and condition are required as storing and retrieving for the long time period. The long term memories are the largest difficult and not easy expedient. The long term memories are served as the latest and lasting storing of the past information, events, class, experiences, data’s and past facts. The long term memories are also used as the working memories concept of the human being perspective. The long term memories are the stage of the storing, repetition, and the reinforcing of the human remembering of the events (Izquierdo, 1998). The classification of the definition of the long term memories is the three parts. These three parts of the human short term memories are given bellow: Duration of the keeping events in mind: unlimited time scale Capacity of the items or events of storing information: unlimited events or items or data The encoding process of the long term memories: it is the auditor in terms The important and essential things are stored It is visual and auditor It is semantic For understanding of the short term memory and long term memory difference the critical strengths of evaluation are required for the perspective (James, 2008). The short term memory is weakened and the long term memory is durable (Kandel, 2009). The short term moor encoding in short term in nature and duration and capacity also refers to the differences. 4. Functions of memory system in human interactions based on theories of memories: Different theories are used for the understandings of the functions of the memory systems. Those theories are based on the neurology and physiology. The memory function is mainly based on the encoding of the past events, information and storing and recalling and retrieving of the past events. There are different functions of the memory systems those are focused on the physiological theories and neurology theories (Ayer, 1956). These functions of memory systems are given bellow: Encoding of the Memory Consolidation of the Memory Storing of the Memory Retrieving / recalling of the past events or memories 4.1 Memory Encoding: The sense of the perception of the event of bio logical at the starting level is known as the encoding of the memory. For encoding of the process events the attention is required. The memorable events are required for the encoding of the memories. Memorable events are the main cause of the following three issues: the people firing again and again, making intension of the past experiences and the like hood increment of the desired event (Ayer, 1956) Those are included in the memories of encoding of the events. Hippocampus is an important part of the encoding of the events. The inputs are analyzed because of the hippocampus. The emotions are also included in the encoding function of the memories. The emotion increases and extends the attention of the events to the people. The encoding process is also known as the walking through of the past experiences, events, information and data (Weldon, 2001). It creates the long term memories systems. The event processing causes to the real sensation of the events. The encoding refers to the poor remembering of the events. It the imaginer level of the events. 4.2 Memory Consolidation: Consolidation of the events is the important and discussed function of the memories systems (Woozley, 1949). After the encoding stage known as the first or initial accusation of the events, the memories are needed to make stable to the events in the memories of the people. So the process of the stabilization of the memories is known as the memories consolidation. The consolidation process is considered as the part or element of the encoding of the events or the storing of the past experiences, events and information (Woozley, 1949). It is a mental processing unit of the memories systems. The consolidation of the memories is done into the different two types of the activities. Those are the following activities: Consolidation of synaptic of the memories Consolidation of the systems of the memories The synaptic consolidation process starts with finishing of the encoding or learning after first few hours. On the other hand, the systems consolidation process includes the hippocampus dependent memories (Laird, 1920). It is the process of memories systems to become self-sufficient and lasting of the remembered for the future period of the events keeping in mind. The consolidation helps the memories increasing of the strength for remembering of the events and larger transmutation of the events and information. 4.3 Memory Storage: Storage of the events in the brain is the main issue point of the memories systems. The retention of the information or retrieving of the past events is the definition of the storage of the events (Wood and Byatt 2008). The storing function is the defined process of the human memories function. It is the function mainly used in the both of the stable long term memories, short term memories or sensor memories. Performing better is termed useful in the storing of the memories. It is the function retained in the long term memories systems of the functions of the memories. The events occurred in the past and happened but this function indicates the recording, storing of the events and kept in the memories used in the later period. 4.4 Memory Recall/Retrieval: The last step of the memories functions is the recalling and retrieving of the memory of events (Audi, 1998). The reassessment of the information of past and past events and past experiences and past facts are included in the function of the recalling or retrieving of the past events and experiences. Reconstruction of the information is termed as the retrieving of the past events (Kandel, 2009). Activation of the neurons is included in the retrieval function. In the retrieval process activation of the network and strength are required for the recalling of the memories. Neural network recognition is part of the recalling function of the memories systems. 5. Conclusion From the above analysis, it can be said that, memory is a crucial part of a human body. Every parts of the human body has its own definite and well-structured task that the parts perform smoothly. Like the other parts, memory has its own functions and these functions are storing information, recalling, past incidents and day to day practices. On the other hand, memeroy is quite related but distinctive to learning in many ways. It is also evident that, learning is helpful for the performance of the functions of the memory. There are two types of memories inlcuding short-term memory and long-term memory. The function of short memory is to remember incidents, facts, past things and so on for a very short period. After that the whole incident has been deleted automatically. Whereas, the long-term memory is opposite of the short-term memory. The function of this very part is to remember things for a long term period. This can be done either consciously by repeating the task again and agai n or by subconsciously that does not need to remember forcefully. To understand the functions of the memories several doctrines and theroies are used. According to the theories, the functions of memory are encoding, consolidation, storing and recalling. Encoding of the memory means the feelings of the perception of the event of biological at the starting level. After the encoding of the memories comes the function of consolidation. In this process the events are stabilized. The retention of the memory is another function. In this function, the events are stored for future in case of any need. The last and the most important one is recalling. This function reminds the person of about something that has been stored earlier. Overall, it is for sure that, storage is more or less passive source of retaining information from the brain in both short term and logn term memory. References: Ayer, A.J. (1956), The Problem of Knowledge, Harmondsworth: Penguin. Auyang, S. (2001), Mind in Everyday Life and Cognitive Science, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Basden, H., Basden, R.and Sean, H. (2000), Applied Cognitive Psychology, Chicago: Chicago University Press. Bartlett, C. (1932), A study in experimental and social psychology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Don, L. (1971), Memory, London: Macmillan. Fukuda, K. and Vogel, E. (2010), Visual short term memory serves as a gateway to long term memory. Journal of Vision10 (7), pp.730-730 Izquierdo, I. (1998). Short- and long-term memory,Behavioral Pharmacology, 9(1), p.S46. Jarrod, L. (2011). Long-term memory supports the retention, preservation, and prioritization of short-term memory. Front. Hum. Neurosis. 5. John, L. (1920), A Study in Realism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kandel, E. (2009). The Long and Short of Long Term Memory. GBM Annual Spring meeting Mosbach 2009 (Spring). Kwint, Marius (1999), Material Memories, Oxford: Berg. Mengistu, A. (2007), The Language of Memory in a Cross linguistic Perspective, Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Michael, L. (1992), Symmetry, Causality, Mind, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Robert, A. (1998), Epistemology, London: Routledge. Woozley, A.D. (1949), Theory of Knowledge: An Introduction, London: Hutchinson. Wood, H.H. and Byatt, A.S. (2008), Memory: An Anthology, London: Chatto and Windus. Yates, A. and Frances, B. (1966), The Art of Memory, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Immigration to the United States and America

Immigration Jennifer Lippert ENG/102 March 12, 2012 Dr. Kimberly Stanley In the United States of America, we live in a sea of opportunity. Many people come from other countries to live in America to explore those opportunities, but the laws governing immigration have failed to change with the ever-increasing immigrant population. We watch as Border States deal with the rising costs to support immigrants and wonder whether this was what the founding fathers had in mind when the first Immigration Laws were passed.We wonder about the effects on America’s economy as our immigrant population work in this country then send these U. S. dollars to their home country to support their families. We observe an ever-changing landscape continually affected by the legal and illegal immigrants who land in our great country. We contemplate whether America is the land of opportunity and the land of the free, or simply a place for immigrants to land and live for free. As citizens, it is not only our right, but also our duty, to question our leaders and our laws particularly when those laws no longer appear to fit America’s vision.Immigration laws have remained stagnant for far too long and, although immigrants were the founding fathers of our nation, it is time to examine America’s position before the social and economic costs become insurmountable. America’s founding fathers believed that immigration was necessary to increase the population of our country, but also believed that they must prove a loyalty only to America to become citizens. Beginning with George Washington, in the late eighteenth century, a statement was made that immigrants should be integrated into American life so that Fonte  Ã‚  (n. . ) â€Å"by an intermixture with our people, they, or their descendants, get assimilated to our customs, measures, laws: in a word soon become one people. â€Å"This then became a new basis for immigration. In this case, the term â€Å"assimilates † means to conform to a way of life. In a 1790 speech to Congress about immigration, James Madison argued that America should welcome those immigrants who could be incorporated into our society, but exclude those immigrants that could not readily assimilate.Thomas Jefferson was convinced that immigrants were not prepared for the new society America was building and thought the country should wait another 27 year before opening its shores. In fact, when addressing immigration in Notes on the State of Virginia, Thomas Jefferson wrote: Fonte  Ã‚  (n. d. ) They will bring with them the principles of the governments they leave, imbibed in their early youth; or, if able to throw them off, it will be in exchange for an unbounded licentiousness, passing, as is usual, from one extreme to another. It would be a miracle were they to stop precisely at the point of temperate liberty.These principles, with their language, they will transmit to their children. In proportion to their number s, they will share with us the legislation. They will infuse into it their spirit, warp and bias its direction, and render it a heterogeneous, incoherent, distracted mass. In other words, by allowing a mass immigration into such a new society, America could be allowing the immigrant population to distort the principles established by our new laws and policies. To some degree, Alexander Hamilton echoed the thoughts of Thomas Jefferson, but his emphasis was on the threat to national safety.His concern was in granting citizenship to every immigrant upon arrival in the country. He believed that there should be some proof of allegiance to America before any rights were given to new immigrants. However, both Jefferson and Hamilton shared the same beliefs that immigrants should conform to the ways of America and leave their old government attachments behind. After much debate, it appeared that Jefferson and Hamilton could claim a small victory. The Naturalization Law of 1795 was passed, wh ich required that before becoming American citizens, immigrants would have to â€Å"renounce under oath† all previous sovereign allegiances.This â€Å"renunciation clause† remains part of the naturalization law and part of the oath to the U. S. Constitution that all new citizens must take. (Fonte,  n. d. ). Changes in immigration laws over the past two centuries have certainly contributed to the overall rise in U. S. immigration statistics, but it would take almost a century before the first amendment to that law would take shape. The Naturalization Law of 1795 required five years of residence and a three-year waiting period before citizenship was granted. This allowed new immigrants the opportunity to assimilate and demonstrate allegiance to America. However, by 1868, with he end of the Civil War, the population was burgeoning with ex-slaves and their descendants who had been brought to this country without the rights of citizenship. In fact, in 1857, the Supreme Co urt ruled that African Americas were not citizens and were not entitled to the rights and privileges of citizenship. In order to rectify the situation, the Fourteenth amendment was passed which granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States of America. Interestingly enough, it would take another war and its devastation to bring about a new amendment to U. S. immigration law in 1921 with the Emergency Quota Act.Following World War I, the country faced widespread unemployment and an anti-immigration uprising. This Act limited the number of immigrants allowed to enter America from any country on an annual basis to three percent of the number of residents from that same country according to the 1910 census with the hope of maintaining the ethnic composition of America. While the quota system remained in effect until 1965, there was one additional revision to the Emergency Quota Act in 1952 with the Immigration Act of 1952, which revised the quotas and elimin ated racial distinctions from immigration policy.National quotas were eventually abolished entirely in the Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965 at the height of the Civil Rights movement, changing the face of America, as it was then known. According to 2011 Census statistics, the U. S. immigrant population continues to change the face of America. Not only do non-whites account for ninety two percent of the U. S. population growth in the past ten years, but also forty million foreign-born individuals now reside in the United States, making up almost thirteen percent of our population.Most of this population lives in metropolitan areas rather than the suburbs, with estimates as high as fifty percent of the population in twenty-two large cities across America. In fact, nine metropolitan areas saw their immigrant population double in the last ten years, but the five cities with the largest immigrant populations (New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Miami and Houston) actually d ecreased their share of this part of the population over the last ten years dropping to a total of 38 percent of the population in 2010 compared to 43 percent in 2000.In some areas of the country, rapid growth in immigration population may create policy backlashes, which could ultimately threaten these places’ long-standing economic comfort. Given the current economic climate and high unemployment rates, do the most recent census figures show any relationship with rising immigration levels? The best available evidence suggests that neither legal nor unauthorized immigration is the cause of high unemployment, and that the higher wages and purchasing power which formerly unauthorized immigrants would enjoy were they to receive legal status would sustain new jobs (American Immigration Council,  2012).In order to make informed decisions regarding immigration reform, however, we cannot limit our assessment to the changing face of our nation; we must also examine the economic cos t to the United States. Recent studies have shown that the United States spends $113 billion annually to support both legal and illegal immigrants, but much of the total U. S. burden is borne by only a few Border States. California, for example, reports spending close to ten billion dollars a year to support its immigration population, which now accounts for almost forty three percent of its total population.Texas reports spending $4. 5 to $6 billion per year sustaining its illegal immigrant population and Arizona drops $2. 7 billion on its immigrant population. While Border States would likely argue for more stringent laws to limit the number of immigrants allowed to enter the country in order to lessen their burden, there are also States that would argue against reform to the immigration system due to its projected adverse effect on their economy. For instance, Kansas has reported that it could possibly lose up to $57. 3 million in their income if stricter immigration laws come in to affect.They claim that with change in immigration laws only comes a higher tax for their state. Kansas also claims that the State will lose millions of dollars in court costs alone if the law makes it difficult for immigrants to live and work in their State. As staggering as these numbers are, other studies show that immigrants have actually boosted the U. S. economy by bringing in $245 million to the gross domestic product. This estimate, however, is nothing compared to estimated wages of foreign employees working in the United States for less than one year which grew from $550 million in $1980 to $8. billion in 2003. These earnings, in turn, are partially returned to immigrant workers’ home countries to help support families in the form of remittances out of the United States. In fact, a study by the Bureau of Economic Analysis in 2003 reported that â€Å"a considerable share of all immigration is motivated at least in part by the opportunity to send home remittances. à ¢â‚¬  According to the study, workers’ remittances from the United States went from $4. 1 billion in 1981 to $25. 5 billion in 2003. While these reported numbers sound staggering, remittances are not considered to have a negative impact on the U.S. economy. In fact, the study also notes that remittances exceed U. S. government provided development assistance to developing countries and may be partially responsible for keeping the cost of such assistance down. America is the land of opportunity. When we look at current immigration laws, our founding fathers’ vision for growth in this country remains intact. In fact, the ideas brought forth by Jefferson and Hamilton for allegiance to the country is still a part of the renunciation oath taken by all new citizens.By the numbers, there is evidence to support immigration reform and there is evidence that the influx of immigrants to the United States actually help our economy. Until the country can come together as a whole t o fully support immigration reform, it is likely that it will take another catastrophic event to catapult immigration to the forefront of American policy reform. References Kerwin, D. (2011). Fixing Immigration. (cover story). America, 205(18), 12. Fonte, J. (n. d. ). To â€Å"Possess the National Consciousness of an American†. Retrieved from http://www. cis. org Frey, W. H. , Berube, A. , Singer, A. & Wilson, J. (2011, December). Five things the census revealed about America in 2011. State of Metropolitan America, 48, 3-4. Retrieved from http://www. brookings. edu Shackleton, R. , Palriwala, A. , & Gordon, A. (2005, May). Remittances: International Payments by Immigrants. The Congress of the United Stated congressional budget office. Retrieved from http://www. hsdl. org Bad for Business: How Anti-Immigrant Laws Can Hurt the Kansas Economy. (2011). Retrieved from http://immigrationpolicy. org American Immigration Council. (2012). Immigration Reform and Growth. Retriev ed from http://immigrationpolicy. org

Effects of Internet on Academic Fraud Essay

It has been found out that the prevalent developments in the field of Information and Communications Technologies has made academic dishonesty easier and nonetheless more tempting and more efficient. This implies that the technology, especially the internet, has made a great negative impact on the society by making academic fraud more prevalent. (Eckstein, M. A. ) Academic fraud has appeared to be on a constant increase in developed and developing countries alike. Many may not realize how this can be a very costly threat to the society and its efficient operation. Moreover, this increase in academic dishonesty would also impart a social disruption on public trust in the reliability and security of many academic and academic related institutions. (Rusch, J. J. ) Academic dishonesty is defined as any form of academic misconduct manifested by any form of cheating that is made in relation to formal academic exercise. This would include plagiarism – which is to literally steal the intellectual property or ideas of other people by using their ideas and not properly citing the authors in the references, or by claiming ideas of others to be your own original idea; fabrication- which is the falsification of data (input of false data) or citations in any formal academic exercise; deception – which includes the providing of negativfe information to an instructor regarding a formal academic exercise (e. g. giving a false excuse for being late or absent or for missing a deadline); cheating – which is any attempt to obtain external assistance in a formal academic exercise, which is to be worked out alone, without due or proper acknowledgements; and sabotage – which is to make an act that would prevent others from completing their work. (McCabe D. L. and Trevino L. K. , 1997) Academic dishonesty has been documented in mostly every type of educational setting; from preschool to elementary school, high school, college and even on graduate school, and has been met with varying degrees of approbation throughout history. Today, educated society tends to take a more negative view of academic dishonesty. (Eckstein, M. A. ) In antiquity, the idea of such a thing as intellectual property did not exist. Ideas were made to be common property of the scholars, literate and the elite. Books were published by hand-copying them. Scholars freely made digests or commentaries on other works, which could contain as much or as little original material as the author desired, in other words, you could not expect published books to contain ideas, exactly as the author have written them. There were no standard system of citation, because printing and pagination was not yet existent. In effect, the scholars became an elite and very small group that trusted each other, and relied on each others ideas based mainly on trust. (Robin R. , 2004) This system continued through the European middle ages where education was in Latin and occasionally in Greek. Some scholars became monks, lived in monasteries, and spent much of their time copying manuscripts. Other scholars preferred to be in urban universities and were vaguely connected to the Roman Catholic Church. (Scheinder, A. , 1999) Academic dishonesty dates back to the first tests that were ever conducted. Scholars note that cheating was prevalent on the Chinese civil service exams thousands of years ago, even when cheating carried the heavy penalty of death for both examinee and examiner. (Eckstein, M. A. ) Before the founding of the MLA and the APA at end of the 19th century, there were no set rules on how to properly cite quotations from the writings of others, this is believed to have caused many cases of plagiarism out of plain ignorance. (Smith, K. J. and Davy J. A. , 2004) In the late 1800s and early 1900s, cheating has become more widespread at college campuses in the United States, and was not considered a dishonorable act among students. It has been estimated that as many as two-thirds of students cheated at some point of their college careers at the turn of the 20th century. Fraternities and some academic-related organizations maintained by students, often operated so-called essay mills, where term papers, and old exams were kept on file and could be resubmitted over and over again by different students, or could be referenced at by them, often with the only change being the name on the paper. At that time, college students, usually white privileged men, were expected by their parents and by society to live the life of the young gentleman, and were required to fulfill a number of social obligations, make connections with the future elite, find a suitable mate, become independent, that were considered far more important than grades. Accordingly, cheating was commonly used by students to put more time towards fulfilling their social obligations at the expense of their academic ones. As higher education in the U. S. trended towards meritocracy, however, a greater emphasis was put on anti-cheating policies, and the newly diverse student bodies tended to arrive with a more negative view of academic dishonesty. (Simmons, S. C. , 1999) At present, academic dishonesty has become widespread in all levels of education. In the United States alone, studies show that 20% of students would begin cheating as early as at their first grade, in relation other studies also show that in the United States around 56% of middle school children and an alarming 70% of those who are at high school have already cheated. (Smith, K. J. and Davy J. A. , 2004) What is more alarming is that it has been revealed that students are not the only ones to cheat in an academic setting. A study among North Carolina school teachers found that some 35 percent of respondents said they had witnessed their colleagues cheating in one form or another (plagiarism, falsification of data†¦etc). The rise of high-stakes testing and the consequences of the results on the teacher is cited as a reason why a teacher might want to inflate the results of their students. (Underwood J. and Szabo A. , 2003)

Pathologies non infectieuses - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 30 Words: 8944 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Health Essay Type Essay any type Did you like this example? III Pathologies environnementales, mà ©taboliques et tumorales Dans ce chapitre, il sera question dexaminer les pathologies non infectieuses dont souffrent les poissons dornements. Ainsi nous verrons les pathologies environnementales, mà ©taboliques, alimentaires, tumorales et gà ©nà ©tiques. 1- Pathologies environnementales Dans le milieu naturel, la composition chimique du milieu hydrique se constitue au fur et à   mesure du dà ©roulement du cycle de leau. Lorsque leau de pluie tombe, elle entraà ®ne avec elle des molà ©cules de dioxyde de carbone, de sels, et de composà ©s dazote et de phosphore en suspension dans lair. Leau de pluie traverse ensuite le terrain sur lequel elle est tombà ©e et senrichit de substances solubles quil contient qui peuvent à ªtre organiques (comme les acides humiques) ou inorganiques (comme les carbamates). Quand la pluie tombe sur des roches granitiques, peu solubles, ceci ne provoque pas de modifications substantielles et leau conservera sa nature dorigine douce; par contre quand elle traverse des terrains riches en tourbes ou avec des feuilles pourrissantes comme dans les forà ªts tropicales, la pluie acquiert un degrà © dacidità © croissant et une coloration ambrà ©e de plus en plus accentuà ©e suivant lacidità ©. De plus, quand la pluie traverse des terr ains riches en substances calcaires plus facilement solubles avec le CO2 de leau, cette dernià ¨re prà ©sentera une concentration de sels à ©levà ©e, notamment du calcium, qui entraà ®nera laugmentation de la duretà © et du degrà © dalcalinità ©. Il en dà ©coule dans tout cela que, dans la nature, leau donne naissance à   des milieux diffà ©rents et parfois opposà ©s, avec des caractà ©ristiques particulià ¨res quil est nà ©cessaire de prendre en considà ©ration quand on veut installer un aquarium. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Pathologies non infectieuses" essay for you Create order 1.1) Pollution de leauH 1.1.1) Carences en oxygà ¨neH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Il sagit dun appauvrissement doxygà ¨ne dans leau. Leau contient une certaine quantità © dair dissoute: la solubilità © de lazote et de loxygà ¨ne, principaux composants de lair, dà ©pend de la tempà ©rature de leau, de la profondeur et de la turbulence aussi bien en surface que dans les couches infà ©rieures. Un aquarium dont le diffuseur dair (ou bulleur) fonctionne normalement naura jamais de problà ¨me de dà ©ficit en air dissous: les bulles dair enrichissent leau en oxygà ¨ne n brassant les couches infà ©rieures et supà ©rieures et en agitant la surface, ce qui favorise les à ©changes gazeux avec latmosphà ¨re. Les plantes produisent à ©galement de loxygà ¨ne pendant la photosynthà ¨se. Elles contribuent à   la saturation de cet à ©là ©ment dans leau. Lorsque le diffuseur ne fonctionne pas, que laquarium est couvert et si de plus il ny a pas de plantes, les poissons risque de manquer doxygà ¨ne aprà ¨s un certains temps. Cest pourquoi ils ont tendance à   rester à   la surface pour piper lair de la surface. Laccumulation de matià ¨res organiques au fond de laquarium et la prolifà ©ration des algues sont des facteurs dappauvrissement en oxygà ¨ne. En effet, les matià ¨res organiques sont dà ©composà ©es par des bactà ©ries qui absorbent de loxygà ¨ne lors de ce processus tandis que les algues ont en besoin pour leur dà ©veloppement. Symptomatologies Les poissons se dà ©placent prà ¨s de la surface, ils pipent lair, ouvrent et ferment la bouche sans arrà ªt, ont les opercules grands ouverts et les branchies de couleur clair ou bleuà ¢tre. Ils prà ©sentent en outre des signes de fatigue et essaye parfois de sauter hors de leau. Si le dà ©ficit en oxygà ¨ne nest pas important, les poissons ne manifesteront pas de tels symptà ´mes. Ils seront nà ©anmoins plus rà ©ceptifs aux infections sans que laquariophile se rende compte des risques. Prophylaxie et traitements Il consiste tout simplement à   rà ©gler le dà ©bit du bulleur, à   amà ©nager quelques ouvertures sur le couvercle de laquarium, à   ajouter des plantes, à   và ©rifier si le nombre de poissons est proportionnel au volume de laquarium, à   nettoyer le fond de laquarium des à ©ventuelles matià ¨res organiques en dà ©composition (poissons morts, plantes en dà ©composition), à ©liminer le matà ©riel dornement recouvert dalgues et à   rà ©gler la tempà ©rature qui ne doit pas à ªtre trop à ©levà ©e sinon les besoins en oxygà ¨ne du poisson vont augmenter considà ©rablement et la capacità © de leau à   retenir loxygà ¨ne dissous diminue (Cf. paragraphe 3.2) la tempà ©rature). Dans le cas dune hypoxie sà ©và ¨re, il convient de faire un changement rapide et partiel de leau qui servira à   rà ©tablir les conditions de respirations normales. 1.1.2) Intoxication par le gaz carboniqueH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Il sagit dun problà ¨me que lon rencontre frà ©quemment au matin dans un aquarium deau douce qui nest pas parfaitement à ©quilibrà ©, qui a encore les lumià ¨res à ©teintes, surpeuplà ©, avec beaucoup de dà ©chets sur le fond et de nombreuses plantes qui, la nuit, avec larrà ªt de la photosynthà ¨se chlorophyllienne, produisent du gaz carbonique. Une autre cause de cette pathologie à   dà ©veloppement aigu, soudain et rapide, peut provenir du kit CO2 mal rà ©glà ©, utilisà © par les aquariophiles pour fertiliser les plantes pendant la nuit. De plus une hausse de la tempà ©rature peut entraà ®ner une hausse du taux de gaz carbonique dissous dans leau (surtout en à ©tà ©). Symptomatologies Lexcà ¨s de gaz carbonique dans le bac est signalà ©, au moment de là ©clairage, par certains comportements des poissons qui, jusquau soir prà ©cà ©dent, se trouvaient en bonne santà © tels quune natation saccadà ©e, une respiration difficile, un dà ©placement en position oblique ou une immobilisation sur le fond, appuyà ©s sur un cotà ©. Prophylaxie et traitements Lempoisonnement par le gaz carbonique mà ¨ne à   une mort certaine dans les quelques heures qui suivent si lon ne procà ¨de pas à   un changement deau rapidement. Comme dans le cas de loxygà ¨ne, il convient dà ©liminer les facteurs qui bouleversent là ©quilibre de laquarium. 1.1.3) Maladie des bulles gazeusesH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Les gazes se dissolvent dans leau en fonction de la tempà ©rature et de la pression. Les poissons absorbent à   travers les branchies ces gaz à   la pression ambiante. Une augmentation de la tempà ©rature ou une baisse de la concentration en gaz entraà ®ne un afflux immà ©diat du sang des vaisseaux vers la peau. En effet, la pression gazeuse diminue beaucoup plus lentement dans le sang des poissons que dans leau. Si la variation est brusque, les vaisseaux hà ©matiques à ©clatent, ce qui entraà ®ne la mort des poissons. Symptomatologies Des petites bulles dair apparaissent sous la peau du poisson, prà ¨s des yeux et de la bouche, sur les à ©cailles et sur les nageoires. Les vaisseaux sanguins sont à ©galement remplis de bulles. Prophylaxie et traitements Il faut trà ¨s rapidement transfà ©rer les poissons malades dans une eau prà ©sentant une concentration en gaz à ©levà ©e, cest à   dire à   haute pression gazeuse, pour labaisser progressivement jusquà   un niveau normal. On peut à ©galement abaisser la tempà ©rature de leau tout en augmentant laà ©ration. A titre prà ©ventif, on appliquera les mesures suivantes: à ©viter les brusques changements de tempà ©rature; dans les aquariums trà ¨s plantà ©s (qui prà ©sentent donc un risque de saturation en oxygà ¨ne), ne pas à ©teindre la lumià ¨re de manià ¨re soudaine, ce qui entraà ®nerait un changement brusque de la teneur en oxygà ¨ne; alors que les poissons ont besoin dun temps dadaptation; ne pas transfà ©rer les poissons dun aquarium trà ¨s aà ©rà © vers un aquarium pauvre en oxygà ¨ne; maintenir une aà ©ration constante, qui permette un brassage de leau, afin que loxygà ¨ne produit par les plantes ne sature pas leau mais remonte à   la surface; à © viter de renouveler leau avec celle du robinet sans ajouter de produit un conditionneur deau pour aquarium. 1.1.4) Intoxication par les dà ©rivà ©s de lazoteH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Pour le cycle de lazote on se rà ©fà ©rera au chapitre I 3.3) traità © auparavant. Dans les aquariums qui prà ©sentent un à ©cosystà ¨me dà ©sà ©quilibrà © (poisson et plantes en surnombre, prolifà ©ration exagà ©rà ©e des algues, accumulation de dà ©chets dorigine animale et và ©gà ©tale, filtre sale ou trop petit), on aura une prà ©sence excessive dammoniaque et dions ammonium qui conduira à   une production massive de nitrites et de nitrates à   des concentrations telles quelles provoqueront lintoxication et la mort de tout les poissons de laquarium. Des concentrations dammoniaque de 0,1 ppm sont toxiques, voire là ©tales, pour la majorità © des poissons; toutefois les Characidà ©s prà ©sentent des anomalies des 0,01 ppm dammoniaque (ou 0,01 mg/l). Les nitrites sont toxiques à   des concentrations supà ©rieures à   0,1 mg/l dans les eaux douces (pauvres en sels minà ©raux) et à   0,2 mg/l dans les eaux dures, puisque initialement ils sont tamp onnà ©s par les sels minà ©raux avec lesquels ils peuvent former des composà ©s non toxiques. Les nitrates peuvent à ªtre tolà ©rà ©s par les poissons dornement à   des concentrations supà ©rieures à   100 ppm (ou 100mg/l), mais ces certains Characidà ©s comme Petitella georgiae on a une manifestation dintoxications des 25 mg/l. Les Discus ressentent des concentrations supà ©rieures à   30 ppm, mais sils sont jeunes, ils donnent des signes dintoxications dà ¨s 20 ppm. Il est important de savoir quen certaines località ©s en France leau distribuà ©e peut contenir une quantità © de nitrate de 50 mg/l qui, comme nous lavons vu, peut avoir des effets toxiques sur certaines espà ¨ces de poisson dornement. Pour cette raison, il convient de contrà ´ler les valeurs de nitrates dans leau de laquarium, avant dy introduire les poissons Symptomatologies Les intoxications chroniques dues aux dà ©rivà ©es de lazote se manifestent par une pà ¢leur des couleurs de la peau, une perte dappà ©tit, un amaigrissement et un frottement des branchies. Les intoxications aigÃÆ' ¼es se manifestent quant à   elle par des difficultà ©s respiratoires (tendance à   remonter à   la surface), des branchies de couleur rouge-violacà ©s et une natation difficile. Enfin les poissons se posent sur le fond et meurent. La prà ©sence de dà ©rivà ©s azotà ©s en quantità © suffisante peut à ©galement donner lieu à   certaines pathologies infectieuses qui se dà ©clenchent chez le poisson affaiblie. Prophylaxie et traitements Comme les cas prà ©cà ©dent, le changement deau reste la solution la plus approprià ©s pour limiter lintoxication. 1.1.5) Intoxication par les dà ©rivà ©s du soufreH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Le souffre, prà ©sents dans les dà ©chets animaux et và ©gà ©taux, est transformà © en acide sulfhydrique, un à ©là ©ment trà ¨s toxique à   lodeur trà ¨s typique dÅ“ufs pourris; cette transformation est produite par les bactà ©ries anaà ©robies qui agissent en labsence doxygà ¨ne. Par la suite, lacide sulfhydrique est transformà © en sulfates, utilisà ©s par les plantes, mais cette dernià ¨re transformation a lieu seulement en prà ©sence doxygà ¨ne. Symptomatologies Les symptà ´mes sont prà ©sentà ©s par des difficultà ©s respiratoires, par des branchies de couleur bleuà ¢tre ou violettes, par une natation saccadà ©e vers la surface et ensuite vers le fond du bac et une perte de là ©quilibre (les poissons semblent à ªtre ivres). Cette symptomatologie est presque toujours suivie par la mort dun poisson qui se trouve dans laquarium polluà © par lacide sulfhydrique. Prophylaxie et traitements La thà ©rapie repose sur les changements deau pour à ©liminer la prà ©sence de lacide sulfhydrique. 1.1.6) Intoxication par le chloreH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Le chlore est normalement utilisà © en tant que bactà ©ricide dans les aqueducs à   des quantità ©s de 0,2 ppm (teneur admise par la loi). Il faut toutefois garder à   lesprit quà   partir de 0,1 ppm, le chlore peut à ªtre toxiques pour certains poissons dornements, alors que 0,5 ppm provoque la mort certaine de tout les poissons de laquarium. En considà ©rant que souvent pendant toute la pà ©riode estivale, les limites prà ©vues par la loi sont dà ©passà ©es, il est important de dà ©chlorer leau du robinet avant de lutiliser dans laquarium. On peut faire baisser la concentration de leau en chlore en la faisant passer par un jet puissant, en utilisant un conditionneur deau ou en laissant le chlore sà ©vaporer aprà ¨s versement de leau potable dans une grande bassine ou elle reposera pendant 12 à   24 heures. Symptomatologies Les symptà ´mes de lintoxication due au chlore sont lapparition de difficultà ©s respiratoires avec des branchies pà ¢les, une perte de là ©quilibre et une opacità © de la peau accompagnà ©e dà ©rosion et dune hypersà ©crà ©tion de mucus. Prophylaxie et traitements On procà ©dera à   là ©limination de leau chlorà ©e en la remplaà §ant par de leau dà ©chlorà ©e. 1.1.7) Intoxication par les insecticidesH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Cette forme dintoxication est trà ¨s rà ©pandue, surtout lorsque lon utilise des bombes aà ©rosol pour la dà ©sinfection des locaux envahis par les puces des chiens et des chats. Parfois laquarium qui se trouve dans la pià ¨ce à   dà ©sinfecter est trà ¨s grand et difficilement transportables; dans ce cas, il est indispensable de dà ©sactiver les aà ©rateurs, de diminuer là ©gà ¨rement le niveau de leau, et de recouvrir laquarium avec un film plastique pour empà ªcher que linsecticide pà ©nà ¨tre dans leau. Plusieurs heures aprà ¨s lutilisation de linsecticide, il est nà ©cessaire de bien aà ©rer la pià ¨ce, et seulement à   ce moment on pourra enlever le plastique, on remettre en fonctionnement les aà ©rateurs et on rà ©ajustera le niveau de leau. Les insecticides communs pour les mouches, les moustiques, les cafards, et les fourmis, ou pour les poux des plantes dappartement sont tout aussi toxiques. Symptomatologies Les symptà ´mes manifestà ©s par les poissons intoxiquà ©s sont une natation saccadà ©e et circulaire et lapparition de convulsions. Ces manifestations aboutissent vite à   la mort du poisson. Prophylaxie et traitements Il est possible dintervenir avec des bains de solution datropine sulfate, ou, en alternative, avec linoculation par voie parentà ©rale du mà ªme remà ¨de pharmacologique pour les gros poissons. 1.1.8) Intoxication par le cuivreH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Le cuivre est un mà ©tal qui provoque trà ¨s facilement des intoxications chez les poissons dornement. Cet à ©là ©ment peut provenir du rà ©seau de distribution deau (tuyauteries en cuivre) ou plus couramment par lutilisation de traitements et algicides; des doses de cuivre dà ©passant 0,2 ppm dans leau douce ou 0,3 ppm dans leau de mer peuvent à ªtre toxiques pour les poissons. Lutilisation de kits colorimà ©triques permet de dà ©terminer la concentration de cuivre dans laquarium ou dans le bac-infirmerie. Symptomatologies Lintoxication provoquà ©e par le cuivre conduit à   des manifestations dorigine nerveuses, une intensification de la couleur de la livrà ©e, une natation saccadà ©e alternà ©e avec une immobilità © sur le fond et une ascite accompagnà ©e dun soulà ¨vement des à ©cailles. Prophylaxie et traitements Une fois lintoxication par le cuivre à ©tablie, qui peut à ªtre provoquà ©e par une thà ©rapie en cours, il est conseillà © deffectuer rapidement un changement deau dau moins un tiers du volume de laquarium. Chez les poissons daquariums dautres cas dintoxications ont à ©tà © dà ©tectà ©s, provoquà ©s par dautres mà ©taux tels que le fer (contenu dans les fertilisants), le plomb (prà ©sent dans les bandes servant à   rassembler les tiges des plantes aquatiques, ou à   maintenir les rhizomes des anubias fixà © au sol sans les enterrer au risque dabimer les plantes), le mercure (la prà ©sence de ce mà ©tal est due à   la rupture des anciens thermomà ¨tre, elle provoque là ©tourdissement, la dà ©sorientation, lascite et ensuite la mort du poisson), le manganà ¨se, le zinc et larsenic. A noter que lensemble des crustacà ©s ornementaux (comme les Reds Cherries) sont encore plus sensible à   lintoxication par les mà ©taux, à   des teneurs beaucoup plus faib les que pour les poissons. 1.1.9) Intoxication par la nicotineH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Des expà ©riences ont prouvà © quune population de Poeciliidà ©s vivant dans un aquarium vivant dans un aquarium à   lintà ©rieur dune pià ¨ce oà ¹ plusieurs personnes fument, ne survit pas plus dune heure. La nicotine se mà ©lange facilement à   leau et des concentrations de 10 ppm arrivent à   tuer un Guppy en quelques minutes. Symptomatologies Les symptà ´mes sont lapparition de spasmes musculaires, dune natation irrà ©gulià ¨re avec les nageoires aplaties contre le corps et dune livrà ©e dà ©colorà ©e. Ces symptà ´mes sont suivis par la mort de lanimal. Une quantità © de nicotine infà ©rieure à   10 ppm peut entraà ®ner des problà ¨mes de reproduction et la naissance dalevins non viables ou malformà ©s. Prophylaxie et traitements La thà ©rapie consiste à   changer leau, mais il est plus important de ne pas exposer les occupants du bac au tabagisme passif en prà ©vention. 1.1.10) Intoxication par les dà ©sinfectantsH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Les dà ©sinfectants à   base de phà ©nol et de permanganate de potassium peuvent provoquer des phà ©nomà ¨nes dintoxications chez les poissons dornements. Le phà ©nol, trà ¨s toxique (mortel à   partir de 5ppm), peut à ªtre contenu dans un morceau de bois recueilli aprà ¨s une marà ©e et qui na pas à ©tà © bouilli avant dà ªtre introduit dans laquarium. Symptomatologies Lintoxication provoque ses symptà ´mes tels que la corrosion des branchies, de la peau, de muqueuse intestinale et du parenchyme hà ©patique, une agitation avec une natation dà ©sordonnà ©e et rapide, une respiration accà ©là ©rà ©e et des contractions musculaires. Prophylaxie et traitements Une thà ©rapie peut à ªtre tentà ©e avec une solution aqueuse de bleu de mà ©thylà ¨ne à   1% à   la dose de 20 gouttes/10 litres deau. Puisque le permanganate de potassium provoque des corrosions branchiales, il convient de rincer rapidement le poisson avec de leau qui ne contient pas la substance toxique en question. 1.2) Variation de tempà ©rature Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques La tempà ©rature corporelle des poissons est à ©troitement lià ©e à   la tempà ©rature du milieu ambiant (cf. paragraphe I 3.2)). Ils ne disposent pas de mà ©canismes physiologiques leur permettant de vivre à   une tempà ©rature inadaptà ©e. Pour cela des variations brusques peuvent provoquer des altà ©rations profondes dans le mà ©tabolisme des poissons. La tempà ©rature de leau peut à ªtre augmentà ©e dans des buts mà ©dicaux, mais cette augmentation doit à ªtre graduelle pour permettre aux poissons de sadapter de cette nouvelle condition. Les tempà ©ratures à ©levà ©es entraà ®nent une accà ©là ©ration du mà ©tabolisme et du rythme cardiaque qui mà ¨ne à   là ©puisement des poissons et qui peut inactiver certaines enzymes. Les tempà ©ratures basses provoquent leffet contraire, cest-à  -dire une paralysie des processus biochimiques. Si les variations de tempà ©rature dà ©passent 10  °C dà ©cart (responsables des chocs thermiques), elles peuve nt entraà ®ner une destruction de la paroi des globules rouges (hà ©molyse), qui dà ©clenche une libà ©ration de lhà ©moglobine dans les vaisseaux. Symptomatologies Laugmentation du mà ©tabolisme directement lià ©e à   une augmentation de la tempà ©rature est mise en à ©vidence par une respiration accà ©là ©rà ©e, une immobilisation à   la surface et un affaiblissement traduit par des mouvements lents, signes de fatigue. Les poissons qui, par contre, se trouvent dans des eaux trop froides, non seulement prà ©sentent une livrà ©e plus foncà ©e que dhabitude, mais ont tendance à   limiter le plus possible leurs mouvements et à   rester immobiles sur le fond, avec parfois des symptà ´mes de contraction et de paralysie. Un brusque à ©cart de tempà ©rature entraà ®ne des pertes dà ©quilibre, des convulsions et des spasmes pouvant conduire à   la mort en quelques secondes. Prophylaxie et traitements Des contrà ´les rà ©guliers du thermomà ¨tre de laquarium peuvent contribuer à   prà ©venir des changements brusques de tempà ©rature et de dà ©cà ©là ©rer une à ©ventuelle dà ©faillance du chauffage. Dans le cas dune tempà ©rature inapproprià ©e, on procà ©dera à   un changement progressif de la tempà ©rature de leau pour la ramener aux valeurs spà ©cifiques de lespà ¨ce. Si un poisson a subi un choc thermique, il faut tout dabord le remettre dans son milieu dorigine et aprà ¨s une pà ©riode de rà ©cupà ©ration, lintroduire dans un sac contenant de leau du milieu dorigine. On plonge ensuite le sac dans laquarium pour permettre une à ©galisation des tempà ©ratures, avant de relà ¢cher le poisson. 1.3) Variation de pH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Les changements rapides de pH de leau provoquent une sà ©rie de troubles aux poissons dornement (Cf. paragraphe I 3.1)). Symptomatologies Les symptà ´mes lià ©s à   une baisse du pH (acidose) sont une natation saccadà ©e, une immobilisation à   la surface, une opacità © de la peau, hypersà ©crà ©tion de mucus cutanà ©, une respiration difficile et des formations dulcà ¨res. Lacidose se constate pendant la nuit dans un aquarium peu à ©quilibrà ©. Il ne faut pas oublier que les poissons qui vivent dans des eaux prà ©sentant un pH alcalin peuvent manifester la mà ªme symptomatologie sils sont introduits dans un bac avec un pH acide. Laugmentation du pH (alcalose) provoque les symptà ´mes suivant: des ulcà ©rations cutanà ©es, un assombrissement de la peau, des effilochures des nageoires et une destruction de là ©pithà ©lium branchial (consà ©quence de loxyde de calcium provenant des carbonates de calcium en milieu excessivement alcalin) avec des difficultà ©s respiratoire. Les poissons qui vivent dans des eaux acides mis dans un bac alcalin prà ©sentent les mà ªmes symptà ´mes à ©galement. Prophylaxie et traitements Afin de prà ©venir ce problà ¨me, il est nà ©cessaire de contrà ´ler rà ©gulià ¨rement, et à ©ventuellement corriger, les valeurs physico-chimiques de leau. Si leau est trop acide, on peut intervenir en ajoutant du bicarbonate de sodium. En revanche, si leau est trop alcaline, on peut rajouter de lacide carbonique ou de la tourbe ou bien quelques gouttes dun acide diluà © comme lacide orthophosphorique. 1.4) Variation de la duretà © Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Une duretà © non adaptà © peu nuire à   la santà © des poissons daquariums (Cf. paragraphe I 3.4)). Symptomatologies Dà ©ventuelles variations de la duretà © de leau provoquent un affaiblissement gà ©nà ©ral chez les poissons daquarium. Cette situation se prà ©sente quand on introduit dans le mà ªme bas des poissons qui nà ©cessitent des duretà ©s deau diffà ©rentes. Par exemple, le Tà ©trodon deau douce et le Platy, qui ont besoin deau dure là ©gà ¨rement saumà ¢tre, ne peuvent pas cohabiter avec des Tà ©tras nà ©ons, les Tà ©tras cardinalis et les Discus qui nà ©cessitent par contre de leau douce là ©gà ¨rement acide. La cohabitation de ces espà ¨ces mà ¨nerait inà ©vitablement à   laffaiblissement des poissons qui pourraient à ªtre facilement agressà ©s par des agents infectieux opportunistes. Prophylaxie et traitements Leau peut à ªtre durcie en introduisant dans le bac des coquillages ou des objets dornement calcaires(Bien que le carbonate de calcium soit insoluble, le CO2 prà ©sent dans leau se combinera au carbonate pour former des bicarbonates solubles) ; au contraire, si leau est trop dure il suffira de la changer partiellement en y ajoutant de leau dà ©minà ©ralisà ©e ou bien utiliser des rà ©sines à ©changeuses dions. 1.5) Le stress Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Les poissons qui se trouvent dans un aquarium prà ©sentent parfois divers symptà ´mes provoquà ©s par des variations de leur à ©cosystà ¨me dorigine et qui les conduit dans un à ©tat de stress pouvant entraà ®ner leur mort. Un maintien dans un milieu ne respectant pas leurs conditions physico-chimiques, une surpopulation, la prà ©sence doccupants agressifs ou des conditions de transport inadaptà ©es peuvent induire cette situation de stress. De plus, durant ces dernià ¨res annà ©es ont fait leur apparition sur le marchà © certaines espà ¨ces de poissons tropicales deau douce avec des livrà ©es trà ¨s diffà ©rentes que celle retrouver dans le milieu naturel (Gourami gold qui est naturellement bleu par exemple). Ces coloration sont obtenues par ce quon appel des à ¹bains hormonaux » ou avec des injections directes de colorants vitaux, et maintenues jusquau moment de lenvoi par de la nourriture contenant des hormones, des colorants et des antibiotiques. Il est à ©vident que ces poissons, avec le temps, non seulement perdent leur coloration forcà ©e, mais ils risquent dattraper à   cause de leur affaiblissement dun certain nombre de pathologies opportunistes comme les dermatites protozoaires, la maladie du velours ou les points blancs. Les poissons nà ©s de lignà ©es gà ©nà ©tiques consanguines depuis plusieurs gà ©nà ©rations donnent vie à   des animaux trà ¨s semblables entre eux, mais souvent peu viables, malformà ©s ou immunologiquement faibles, proies donc de nombreux agents à ©tiologiques prà ©sents dans laquarium. Certaines espà ¨ces ont plus de mal que dautres à   sadapter à   la vie en aquarium car leurs de maintien comporte un certains nombre de paramà ¨tres contraignant quil est difficile de reproduire en captività ©. Les nà ©cropsies effectuà ©es sur des poissons deau de mer importà ©s depuis peu, qui ne se sont jamais alimentà ©s en captività ©, ont souvent montrà © une dà ©gà ©nà ©rescence hà ©pa tique. La mort de ces poissons peut à ªtre attribuà ©e au stress qui dà ©rive de la capture et du transfert, ou mà ªme à   la toxicità © des substances anesthà ©siques qui sont souvent ajoutà ©es à   leau du bac de transfert oà ¹ les poissons reste immergà ©s depuis le lieu de capture jusquau lieu de vente. Lutilisation danesthà ©sique tel que le MS 222 ou tricaà ¯ne-mà ©thylsulfonate lors de la capture de poissons deau de mer herbivores comme les petits Pomacanthidà ©s (Centropyge) et certains Acanthuridà ©s (Zebrasoma spp. Et Acanthurus spp.) peut provoquer une occlusion intestinale due aux matià ¨res và ©gà ©tales (algues). Ces matià ¨res sà ©journent dans lintestin à   la suite dun soudain ralentissement mà ©tabolique du poisson, provoquà © par lanesthà ©sique dissous dans leau. Il est possible de soupà §onner une constipation chez les petits poissons-anges ou ces Chirurgiens importà ©s depuis peu qui prà ©sentent labdomen gonflà ©, une anorexie et u n affaiblissement progressif. Symptomatologies Les poissons qui manifeste un à ©tat de stress sont gà ©nà ©ralement craintifs ont un troubles du comportement. Pour les espà ¨ces calmes de nature on va avoir une agitation anormale dans le bac alors que les espà ¨ces plus vives vont au contraire se sisoler dans un coin de laquarium à   la recherche dun abri. Les poissons stressà ©s prà ©sentent un manque dappà ©tit associà © à   des troubles digestifs pouvant se traduire par une constipation. Selon les spà ©cimens, on observe un assombrissement de la livrà ©e (exemple du Discus) ou au contraire une pà ¢leur des couleurs qui sont vives habituellement (exemple des nez rouges). Avec le temps les poissons vont saffaiblir donnant lopportunità © aux agents pathogà ¨nes opportunistes de se manifester, puis se laisseront mourir. Prophylaxie et traitements Selon le Dr M. Millefanti, pour les poissons deau de mer rà ©cemment capturà ©s et souffrant de constipation, la thà ©rapie la plus efficace consiste en un bain osmotique qui doit à ªtre conseillà © par un expert à   cause des risques à ©levà ©s que cela peut prà ©senter pour le poisson. Le bain, dont la durà ©e varie de dix à   quinze minutes, consiste en limmersion du poisson dans un bac-infirmerie contenant une partie deau de mer qui provient de laquarium domestique et quatre parties deau douce à   la mà ªme tempà ©rature. Pendant le bain, le poisson prà ©sentera des difficultà ©s respiratoires, des pertes de là ©quilibre, des variations de coloration de la livrà ©e et, si le diagnostique se rà ©và ¨le exact, il à ©liminera un ou plusieurs amas excrà ©mentiels, gà ©nà ©ralement de couleur vert foncà © ou blanchà ¢tre et contenant du mucus. A ce moment-là  , le poisson sera rà ©habituà © à   son milieu en ajoutant peu à   peu de leau de mer dans le bac-infirmerie. Le bain osmotique peut à ªtre utilisà © pour à ©loigner les ectoparasites, comme les crustacà ©s ou les vers de la peau et des branchies des poissons deau de mer sans avoir recours à   des produits toxique comme le sulfate de cuivre. Si lanimal à   traiter est un poisson deau douce, le bac infirmerie devra contenir deux litre deau douce et huit litres deau de mer. Pour prà ©venir les à ©tats de stress des poissons dornements, il faut tout dabord sassurer que tout les paramà ¨tres physico-chimiques du bac rà ©pondent aux exigences des espà ¨ces que lon veut adopter et ne pas associer des espà ¨ces agressives avec des espà ¨ces plus calmes. De plus il faudra và ©rifier de ne pas mettre dans le mà ªme bac des prà ©dateurs avec leur proies. En effet, il arrive que des aquariophiles dà ©butant mettent ensemble des Scalaires adultes avec un banc de Tà ©tras-nà ©ons et à   leur grande surprise, se retrouve avec un aquarium nettoyà © de toute trace de Characidà ©s en à   peine quelques jours (les nà ©ons sont des proies habituels des Scalaires dans les bassins amazoniens). Il est tout de mà ªme possible dassocier les deux espà ¨ces à   la seul condition que les Scalaires soit habituà ©s dà ¨s leur plus jeune à ¢ge à   la prà ©sence des Characidà ©s et quil soit nourrit à   leur faim. Il faut à ©galement respecter les caractà ¨res sociaux de chaque espà ¨ce: les Labà ©o Bicoloris sont des poissons solitaire quil ne faut jamais associer à   un congà ©nà ¨re au risque de voir le dominant sacharner sur le dominà © jusquà   le tuer; en revanche les Characidà ©s doivent à ªtre impà ©rativement à ªtre maintenu en banc de 10 individus minimum pour se sentir rassurà © sinon ils risquent de mourir subitement dun arrà ªt cardiaque à   cause du stress. De mà ªme, certaines espà ¨ces doivent à ªtre maintenues en bac spà ©cifiques à   cause de leurs caractà ¨res comportementaux et leurs exigences physico-chi miques trà ¨s spà ©cifiques comme les Cryptoheros nigrofasciatus, dautres peuvent vivre en bac communautaire comme les Characidà ©s que lon peut associer à   des Callichthyidà ©s et des Loricaridà ©s. Enfin centaines mesures de prà ©caution doivent à ªtre prises en compte lors de lacclimatation de nouveaux arrivants dans le bac (quon mettra de prà ©fà ©rence dans un bac de quarantaine): il faut dabord laisser flotter le sachet contenants les nouveaux arrivants à   la surface de laquarium qui va les accueillir pendant une vingtaine de minutes le temps dhomogà ©nà ©iser la tempà ©rature. On versera petit à   petit de leau de laquarium dans le sachet des nouveaux poissons pour quils shabituent au fur et à   mesure aux nouveaux paramà ¨tres physico-chimiques de leur bac daccueil. On transportera ensuite les poissons dans laquarium à   laide dune à ©puisette en veillant à   ne pas dà ©verser leau du sachet dans le nouveau bac pour limiter les risques de contamination par dà ©ventuels agents pathogà ¨nes provenant de chez le vendeur. Là ©tape de lacclimatation est plus dà ©licate pour les crustacà ©s qui sont plus sensible aux variations brusques des paramà ¨tres physico-chimiques entre deux milieux diffà ©rents; il faudra procà ©der à   un systà ¨me de goutte à   goutte à   laide dune seringue, mà ©thode qui peut durer plusieurs heures. Un dernier conseil serait de privilà ©gier lachat de poissons issus de reproductions obtenues chez des particuliers, que lon peut se procurer dans les bourses de poissons organisà © par les association locales (Bourses de lAssociation Marseille Cichlidà ©s ou A.M.C. qui se tient au mois de Mars et Septembre de chaque annà ©e) ou dans les petites annonces sur le net; lavantage à ©tant davoir des poissons plus robustes qui ont survà ©cu à   la sà ©lection naturelle et qui sont dà ©jà   habituà ©s à   la vie en captività ©, contrairement aux poissons dà ©levages industrielles, qui sont à ©levà ©s dans des conditions peu idà ©ales et qui baigne continuellement dans des bains dantibiotiques, ce qui les rends moins rà ©sistant aux infections. 2- Pathologies mà ©taboliques et alimentaires Les pathologies directement lià ©es à   lalimentation peuvent à ªtre facilement prà ©venues si laquariophile connaà ®t bien les exigences alimentaires de ces poissons et utilise des aliments à ©quilibrà ©s, propres et sains. Ainsi se pose le problà ¨me de la quantità © et de la qualità © de nourriture à   administrer. En ce qui concerne la quantità ©, il convient dinsister sur le fais que la plupart des poissons sont incapable de contrà ´ler le mà ©canisme de la satià ©tà © et dà ©vorent tout ce quon leur offre avec avidità ©, doà ¹ le risque à ©vidents de suralimentations. Ce comportement est lià © au fait que, dans la nature, lanimal ne dispose pas toujours de rà ©serves abondantes de nourritures. Pendant les perturbations atmosphà ©riques, avec les rivià ¨res en crue ou pendant un raz de marà ©e, les poissons ne salimentent pas; on à   dailleurs observà © que presque toutes les espà ¨ces à ©levà ©s en aquarium peuvent rester sans manger pendant d eux, voir trois semaines, sans à ªtre affectà ©s. Mais aprà ¨s la tempà ªte, quand les eaux redeviennent calmes, ils recommenceront à   manger avidement tout ce qui leur trouve à   leur passage. Dans laquarium, les poissons gardent ce type dattitude, mà ªme sils sont nourris rà ©gulià ¨rement. Ils se prà ©cipitent sur la nourriture et si celle-ci est administrà ©e dans des quantità ©s idà ©ales, elle sera complà ¨tement ingà ©rà ©e en lespace de trois à   cinq minutes. Les dà ©cà ¨s dus à   la suralimentation sont assez frà ©quents, surtout chez les amateurs nà ©ophytes. La quantità © de nourriture à   administrer est fonction du nombre de poissons, de leur taille, ainsi que de la structure de laquarium. Outre le fait que les aliments doivent disparaà ®tre cinq minutes aprà ¨s leur administration, il faut sassurer quil ne doit pas rester de dà ©bris sur le fond et que sil sagit de proies vivantes, on ne doit pas voir se former des colonies ni les voir pull uler entre les grains de sable. A cet à ©gard, ma couleur et lodeur de leau sont des facteurs essentiels à   prendre en considà ©ration. Une eau saine ne doit pas à ªtre blanchà ¢tre (bactà ©ries), ni jaunà ¢tre (excà ¨s de sels minà ©raux et surtout de nitrates et durà ©e). Quand à   lodeur, elle doit rappeler celle de leau fraà ®che des bassins installà ©s en extà ©rieur. La meilleur solution consiste à   distribuer la ration journalià ¨re en une à   deux fois par jour (voir un peu plus pour les alevins en pleine croissance). Rappelons à ©galement que toute augmentation de tempà ©rature doit se traduire par un apport accru de nourriture. En gà ©nà ©ral, lappà ©tit naugmente plus à   partir de 28  °C. En ce qui concerne la qualità © de la nourriture, soulignons que les aliments frais sont nettement prà ©fà ©rables aux aliments secs industriels. Toutefois, ces derniers prà ©sentent lavantage dà ªtre plus commodes demploi et fournissent tout de m à ªme un apport nutritif tout à   fait satisfaisant. On peut donc les utiliser comme nourriture de base, en les complà ©tant quotidiennement avec des aliments frais, dorigine animale (proies vivantes) ou và ©gà ©tale. Les aliments secs à ©tant pauvres en vitamines et parfois mà ªme en protà ©ines, il ne faut pas les employer de faà §on exclusive, car ils risquent dentraà ®ner un affaiblissement des poissons et une prà ©disposition aux maladies, à   la stà ©rilità © et à   lanà ©mie. Les aliments secs constituà ©s de petits crustacà ©s et de vers lyophilisà ©s sont tout de mà ªme plus riche en vitamines que la nourriture en flocon. Parmi les aliments frais, le jaune dÅ“uf dur finement hachà ©s convient tout particulià ¨rement aux alevins. La viande de bÅ“uf, le sang coagulà ©, le poisson, les moules et les crevettes sont à ©galement indiquà ©s. Tous ces aliments peuvent à ªtre administrà ©s coupà ©s en petits morceaux ou bien sous la forme de port ion unique que lon retire de laquarium au bout de cinq à   dix minutes. Certains poissons sont herbivores, dautres ont besoin dun complà ©ment và ©gà ©tal que les algues de laquarium ne suffisent pas à   leur fournir. Dans ce cas, on ajoutera à   leur ration quelques feuilles de laitues ou dà ©pinards bouillis, ou bien un mà ©lange des deux. La cuisson dà ©truit une grande partie des vitamines, mais elle est nà ©cessaire pour à ©viter les risques dinfections. Parmi les nourritures vivantes, signalons les infusoires, micro-organismes constituant une excellente nourriture pour les alevins. On les obtient en faisant infuser des feuilles et des à ©pluchures de bananes sà ¨ches ou des grains de riz paddy (grains de riz non dà ©cortiquà ©s). Ce bouillon de culture doit à ªtre maintenu à   une tempà ©rature supà ©rieure à   20  °C. On peut à ©galement nourrir les poissons avec des larves dArtemia Salina (crevettes deau saumà ¢tre), que lon trouve dans le commerce sous forme dÅ“ufs trà ¨s faciles à   faire à ©clore. Les daphnies ou à ¹puces deau » et les copà ©podes des Cyclops sont trà ¨s apprà ©cià ©s aussi par les poissons. On peut les capturer dans les mares à   laide dun petit filet à   plancton. Il est possible de les à ©lever dans un petit aquarium au grand air, en y ajoutant de temps en temps un peu de fromage ou de viande. Signalons encore la mouche de vinaigre, Drosophila melanogaster, de prà ©fà ©rence dans sa varià ©tà © sa varià ©tà © mutante incapable de voler, plus facilement à   manipuler. On peut capturer les insectes de la varià ©tà © normale en plaà §ant des bouteilles contenant des fruits fermentà ©s dans une zone de vignobles. Ces mouches doivent à ªtre à ©levà ©es à   une tempà ©rature supà ©rieure à   20  °C, avec un mà ©lange de banane à ©crasà ©e et de produit anti-moisissure et un peu de levure boulangà ¨re. Parmi les vers, on fait appel au tubifex, annà ©lides a ppartenant à   la classe des oligochà ¨tes deau douce. Ce sont des vers rougeà ¢tre qui vivent dans la boue. Ils sont pauvres en protà ©ines et trop riches en graisses et peuvent à ªtre porteurs de bactà ©ries pathogà ¨nes, mais ils lavantage de compter parmi les rares aliments vivants en vantes dans le commerce. On peut recourir aussi aux microvers blancs qui sont de petits nà ©matodes maintenus dans un mà ©lange nutritifs composà © de flocon davoine (quatre volumes), de lait à ©crà ©mà © en poudre (deux volumes) et de levure de bià ¨re (un volume) le tout humidifià © dans un peu deau pour former une pà ¢te plus ou moins liquide et les anguillules du vinaigre ou Turbatrix aceti (autres nà ©matodes) dont la culture ne demande que du vinaigre de cidre que lon alimente de temps en temps par lajout de morceaux ou dà ©pluchures de pommes. Les vers de terre et les vers Grindal sont à ©galement des aliments trà ¨s utilisà ©s. On peut enfin conseiller les larves de mou stiques Chironomus et Culex, que lon capture dans les petits à ©tangs naturels ou artificiels à   laide dun filet à   plancton. Les alevins peuvent servir de nourriture pour les poissons exigeants qui ont du mal à   sadapter à   la vie en captività ©. Notons que la nourriture vivante prà ©sente linconvà ©nient de polluer le bac plus vite si elle nest pas consommà ©e rapidement par les poissons en cas de surdosage ce qui peut entraà ®ner une augmentation des teneurs en ammoniaque et en nitrites trà ¨s toxiques pour les occupants de laquarium. 2.1) HCarences alimentaires Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Ces symptà ´mes caractà ©risent un grand nombre de maladies diffà ©rentes, aussi bien bactà ©riennes que parasitaires, mais ils peuvent aussi à ªtre dus à   une alimentation insuffisante. Les poissons ainsi affectà ©s deviennent plus rà ©ceptifs aux agents pathogà ¨nes et donc plus sujets aux maladies. Symptomatologies Les carences alimentaires se traduisent principalement par un amaigrissement gà ©nà ©ral du poisson et chez les jeunes sujets, par un ralentissement de la croissance et du dà ©veloppement. La perte dappà ©tit et la dà ©coloration en sont des symptà ´mes secondaires. Le ventre se creuse et prà ©sent un bord qui semble effilà ©. Les carences en vitamines ou avitaminoses sont responsables de symptà ´mes spà ©cifiques qui sont dà ©taillà ©s sur le tableau de la figure X. Prophylaxie et traitements Aprà ¨s sà ªtre assurà © que ces symptà ´mes ne sont pas dus à   un agent pathogà ¨ne, on veillera à   ce que les poissons salimentent et que la nourriture ingà ©rà ©e soit complà ¨te. Les nourritures vivantes sont toujours les plus indiquà ©es. Il est à ©galement conseillà © de và ©rifier lacidità © et la duretà © de leau, et de contrà ´ler que certains poissons nempà ªchent pas les autres de manger normalement. Souvent, on obtient de bon rà ©sultat en transfà ©rant les spà ©cimens atteints dans un aquarium contenant de leau à ¹vieillie », cest-à  -dire de leau dà ©jà   à ©quilibrà © et restà ©e pendant un certain temps au grand air (dans ce cas, on sassurera que sa tempà ©rature nest pas trop basse). 2.2) Dà ©gà ©nà ©rescence graisseuse du foie Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Cette maladie est une consà ©quence de la suralimentation et dune nourriture trop riche en hydrates de carbone. Elle set trà ¨s frà ©quente chez les poissons qui sont nourris uniquement avec des aliments secs ou qui mangent beaucoup de pain (comme cest le ca, par exemple dans les bassins des jardins publics). La nourriture en excà ¨s se transforme en graisses qui finissent par tuer les cellules qui les renferment. Le nombre des cellules de stockage augmente ainsi de plus en plus et les organes fonctionnent de moins en moins bien Symptomatologies Les poissons atteints ont le ventre gonflà © et peuvent devenir obà ¨ses. A lautopsie, le foie apparaà ®t gonflà ©, jaunà ¢tre et visqueux à   cause de linfiltration de lipides. Dans certains cas, les reins et le pancrà ©as sont aussi envahis de graisses et partiellement nà ©crosà ©s. Prophylaxie et traitements Les mesures prà ©ventives classiques sont le moyen le plus efficace dà ©viter la maladie. Lorsque celle-ci na pas atteint un stade trop avancà ©, il convient de soumettre les poissons pendant plusieurs semaines à   un rà ©gime alimentaire comportant trà ¨s peu de corps gras, voire pas du tout. Les aliments les plus indiquà ©s sont les proies vivantes, exceptions faite, toutefois, des tubifex. 2.3) Entà ©rite Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques En gà ©nà ©ral, lentà ©rite est lià ©e à   une alimentation dà ©sà ©quilibrà ©e ou à   des infections bactà ©riennes par Eimeria ou Oodinium. Sur le plan alimentaire, les carences en lipides et en vitamines sont les principaux facteurs responsables de cette maladie. Symptomatologies Les sujets malades à ©mettent des matià ¨res fà ©cales semi-solides, rougeà ¢tre et plus courtes que dhabitudes. Le rectum et lanus sont irrità ©s, ce dernier à ©tant parfois proà ©minent. Lintestin est souvent transparent. Prophylaxie et traitements Il faut laisser les poissons à   jeun pendant un ou deux jours, puis leur donner des proies vivantes, en particulier des tubifex. Si lon nobserve pas damà ©liorations dans les jours qui suivent, on peut leur administrer un purgatif (par exemple de lhuile de ricin), dont on introduira dà ©licatement une goutte dans leur bouche à   laide dun petit compte-gouttes. Pour effectuer cette opà ©ration, on placera le poisson dans un linge propre et humide. 2.4) Occlusion intestinale Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Locclusion intestinale est une pathologie lià ©e à   lalimentation. La distribution de grosses quantità ©s de nourriture revà ªtue dune coquille chitineuse, de crustacà ©s, de crevettes, de larves de Tenebrio molitor (trà ¨s fibreux), de morceaux de salade, dà ©pinards ou de courgettes blanchis, peuvent amener à   une accumulation daliments dans lintestin (constipation) qui risque de se transformer en une và ©ritable occlusion. Symptomatologies Les poissons se prà ©sentent avec un abdomen gonflà ©, gà ©nà ©ralement plus accentuà © dun cà ´tà © que de lautre, ne salimentent pas mais sont toutefois intà ©ressà ©s par la nourriture et nà ©liminent pas dexcrà ©ments. De plus, leur comportement est modifià ©: ils deviennent fuyants et nerveux, saffaiblissent et enfin aprà ¨s quelques jours, finissent par mourir. Prophylaxie et traitements Si lon se trouve en prà ©sence dune occlusion, il suffira pour la rà ©soudre daugmenter le mà ©tabolisme du poisson, en à ©levant graduellement la tempà ©rature de leau, sans avoir recours au bain osmotique dà ©crit prà ©cà ©demment dans le paragraphe III 1.5) sur le stress du poisson; il convient davoir recours à   ce dernier seulement en cas de nà ©cessità © impà ©rieuse. Ladministration de substances huileuses avec une canule par voie orale ou anale peut à ªtre envisagà ©e mais elle est à   à ©vità © chez les poissons à   cause du stress quune telle thà ©rapie peut provoquer (alors quelle est facilement praticable chez les jeunes tortues aquatiques). Il convient de rappeler quune distribution excessive de nauplius dArtemia salina riche en rà ©sidus de coquille dÅ“uf, peut provoquer des entà ©rites (cf. paragraphe III 2.3)) et des occlusions intestinales aux alevins des poissons dornement. Pour faire en sorte que les artà ©mies ne prà ©sentent pas de coq uilles chitineuses, mais seulement des rà ©sidus du sac vitellin, il suffit de mettre quelques grammes (suivant le nombre dalevins à   nourrir) dartà ©mies dans un rà ©cipient avec 100 ml deau douce à   25  °C environ, avec une pierre poreuse lià ©e à   un aà ©rateur pendant une heure. Ensuite on ajoutera 2 ou 3 ml dhypochlorite de sodium, et aprà ¨s quelques minutes, quand les Å“ufs deviennent rosà ©s, ils seront rincà ©s à   laide dun filet et conservà ©s dans un rà ©cipient avec de leau salà ©e à   25  °C constants; leau à ©tant en mouvement continu (pierre poreuse et aà ©rateur). Les Å“ufs seront à ©clos dans les 12 à   36 heures qui suivent. 3- Pathologies tumorales et gà ©nà ©tiques 3.1) Nà ©oplasiesHH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Jusquà   prà ©sent, les chercheurs ont à ©tudià © les corrà ©lations existant entre lapparition de ces anomalies et des facteurs dà ©terminà ©s tels que la prà ©sence de substances chimiques organiques particulià ¨rement dans les aliments, la pollution des eaux par les hydrocarbures et les produits azotà ©s, la prà ©sence de virus, laction exercà ©e par les hormones secrà ©tà ©es par le poisson malade et enfin, une à ©ventuelle prà ©disposition gà ©nà ©tique de certaines espà ¨ces et certains hybrides. Pour lheure, on ne dispose toujours pas dinformations claires et prà ©cises concernant les và ©ritables responsables de ce type de maladie. Les virus agissent en introduisant leur matà ©riel gà ©nà ©tique dans la cellule atteinte; le mà ©canisme oncogà ¨ne provoque ensuite une prolifà ©ration tumorale à   partir de cette cellule, en inhibant tout processus de rà ©gulation par rapport aux autres cellules et en brisant là ©quilibre cellulaire. Toutes le s rà ©serves à ©nergà ©tiques de lanimal sont peu à   peu accaparà ©es, ainsi que les nouvelles sources dà ©nergie provenant de lalimentation, de sorte quil sensuit une destruction de tous les organes, puis la mort du poisson. Les tumeurs peuvent à ªtre bà ©nignes ou maligne. Les premià ¨res sont entourà ©es dune sorte denveloppe qui ralentit leur croissance et les empà ªche de se propager dans lorganisme. Les tumeurs malignes, en revanche, sont dà ©pourvues de cette enveloppe, de sorte que le dà ©veloppement du cancer est rapide et sà ©tend, par voie sanguine ou lymphatique, à   tous les autres organes. On parle de mà ©tastases. Certaines tumeurs sont frà ©quentes, notamment là ¹Ãƒ ©pithà ©liome papuleux », (consà ©quent de la papillomatose ou de la variole de la carpe) qui provoque un à ©paississement de là ©piderme et lapparition, de zones blanchà ¢tres et gà ©latineuses bien dà ©limità ©es. Cette maladie ne connaà ®t pas de traitement, mais il a à ©tà © prouvà © que lon pouvait obtenir des guà ©risons en amà ©liorant la salubrità © de leau. Les papillomes sont des prolifà ©rations cutanà ©es en forme de chou-fleur trà ¨s spectaculaires. Assez frà ©quents chez les anguilles, ils gà ªnent les mouvements du poisson aussi bien pour nager que pour salimenter. La tumeur de la thyroà ¯de ou goitre est un adà ©nome thyroà ¯dien qui se manifeste par lapparition sous la mà ¢choire infà ©rieure et entre les deux opercules dune intumescence rosà ©e de quelques millimà ¨tres de diamà ¨tre. Il sagit dune inflammation de la glande thyroà ¯dienne. Cette glande sà ©crà ¨te une hormone, la thyroxine, qui est chargà ©e de rà ©guler le mà ©tabolisme. Si lorganisme du poisson ne contient pas assez diode, substance nà ©cessaire à   la synthà ¨se de cette hormone, la thyroà ¯de shypertrophier et dà ©velopper un goitre. Cette tumà ©faction peut aussi rà ©sulter dun cancer. On peut soigner cette affection en ajo utant dans leau quelques gouttes dune solution contenant 100 mg diode et 10 mg diodure de potassium dans 100 ml deau. Il faudra laisser le poisson dans ce bain pendant deux semaines. On peut à ©galement administrer liodure de potassium par voie orale à   raison de 1 mg/2,5 g daliments. Un apport de proies vivantes riches en vitamines et en protà ©ines pendant plusieurs jours en alternance avec des aliments secs peut aider le poisson à   plus vite se rà ©tablir. Si elle nest pas traità ©e à   temps, cette maladie peut dà ©gà ©nà ©rer en tumeur maligne: ladà ©nocarcinome thyroà ¯dien. Comme tous les cancers, cette maladie essaime des mà ©tastases et entraà ®ne la formation de tumeurs qui compriment les vaisseaux sanguins, les organes de la cavità © abdominale et les muscles. Une autre tumeur maligne observà ©e chez les poissons est le mà ©lanosarcome, qui provoque une croissance aussi bien de la taille que du nombre des mà ©lanophores (cellules contenant la mà ©l anine, pigment sombre de la peau) et entraà ®ne la destruction des nageoires et de la paroi abdominale, puis la mort. Symptomatologies Les tumeurs, ou nà ©oplasies, sont des prolifà ©rations anormales des tissus provoquà ©es par un accroissement excessif du nombre des cellules. Les cellules atteintes se multiplient de faà §on anarchique et se dà ©veloppent sans le moindre contrà ´le. Lorsque lorgane touchà © est superficiel, le symptà ´me le plus apparent est lapparition de la tumeur sur le corps du poisson. Prophylaxie et traitements Il nexiste pas de traitement pour ce type de maladie. Les rà ©sultats obtenus dans ce domaine ne sont guà ¨re nombreux non plus en ce qui concerne la pathologie humaine. Cela tient essentiellement au fait que lon ne connaà ®t pas encore lagent qui en est responsable. Dans le cas de tumeurs bà ©nignes, on peut procà ©der, si on estime que cela vaut la peine, à   une ablation chirurgicale. 3.2) Dà ©formations congà ©nitalesH Prà ©sentation et caractà ©ristiques Les dà ©formations congà ©nitales sont des anomalies dues à   une altà ©ration gà ©nà ©tique ou une irrà ©gularità © du dà ©veloppement embryonnaire. En gà ©nà ©ral, elles sont pathologiques, voire non viable. En effet, les poissons qui naissent dà ©formà ©s ont de faibles chances de survie; ils meurent souvent trà ¨s tà ´t ou sont stà ©riles (toutefois, sils ne le sont pas, les caractà ¨res anormaux ne sont gà ©nà ©ralement pas hà ©rà ©ditaires). Il arrive, dans de rares cas, que les anomalies constituent un avantage par rapport aux congà ©nà ¨res normaux (mutation dans le cadre de là ©volution des espà ¨ces qui sadapte à   leur environnement) ou encore quelles soient apprà ©cià ©es du point de vu esthà ©tique par les amateurs de poissons ornementaux. Dans ce cas, soit le caractà ¨re exceptionnel se conserve naturellement, soit on met tout en Å“uvre pour le conserver en croisant entre eux les sujets qui en sont dotà ©s, puis en choisissant parmi l es descendants ceux qui le dà ©veloppent le plus. En procà ©dant ainsi, on sà ©lectionne progressivement une nouvelle varià ©tà © (cas des poissons rouges qui regroupent un grand nombre de varià ©tà ©: tà ªte de lions, poissons tà ©lescopes, voile de chine etc.). En fait, un grand nombre des poissons daquariums peuvent à ªtre qualifià ©s de và ©ritables monstres de la nature. Si on les remettait en libertà © dans les rivià ¨res ou dans la mer, ils disparaà ®traient en peu de temps ou perdraient leur caractà ¨re anormal en quelques gà ©nà ©rations pour retrouver leurs traits naturels. La morphologie dorigine dun à ªtre vivant correspond en effet toujours à   la meilleure adaptation au milieu naturel. La frà ©quence de telles anomalies chez les poissons daquariums est due au fait que lon entretient souvent des taux de consanguinità © à ©levà ©, autrement dit que lon croise entre eux des sujets issus dune souche commune, qui ont donc de nombreux caractà ¨res codifià ©s par les mà ªmes gà ¨nes. Dans certains cas la mutation nest pas viable et entraà ®nera la mort de lembryon avant mà ªme sa naissance. Quand deux spà ©cimens trà ¨s diffà ©rents sont croisà ©s, là ©ventuel gà ¨ne mutant de lun des gà ©niteurs est souvent rà ©cessif par rapport au gà ¨ne normal de lautre qui est plutà ´t dominant. Lorsque lon souhaite effectuer des croisements, il est donc important de se procurer des poissant de provenance diffà ©rentes pour limiter les cas de malformations gà ©nà ©tiques et assurer une descendance bien robuste face au infections. Dautres malformations dites à ¹secondaires » (par oppositions aux malformations congà ©nitales) peuvent se manifester chez les poissons. Elles sont provoquà ©es par des causes externes comme lhypoxie et les intoxications dues à   la nicotine et aux maladies comme la tuberculose (malformation de la colonne vertà ©brale). Symptomatologies Ils sont trà ¨s varià ©s et se manifestent principalement à   travers le dà ©veloppement de caractà ¨res anormaux par rapport à   la morphologie spà ©cifique de lespà ¨ce. Ces dà ©formations anatomiques varient beaucoup selon leur nature et leur gravità ©. Elles peuvent à ªtre externes ou internes (dans ce cas, elles sont moins faciles à   dà ©celer). Une dà ©formation congà ©nitale est considà ©rà ©e comme pathologique lorsquelle met en danger la vie du poisson. Les principales dà ©formations congà ©nitales pouvant affecter les poissons sont les suivantes: nageoires tordues, absence de nageoires, moignons, bouche en forme de bec, exophtalmie, dà ©formations de la nageoire dorsale, naissance de couples siamois dans lesquels un sujet est rà ©duit à   un moignon attachà © au corps de son frà ¨re, variations de couleur et tout type daltà ©ration morphologique du cÅ“ur, des reins, de la vessie natatoire, de lintestin, des ovaires, etc. Prophylaxie et traitements Il nexiste aucun traitement pour guà ©rir ce type de maladie dans la mesure oà ¹ lorigine de ces anomalies est inscrite dans la structure gà ©nà ©tique mà ªme de chaque cellule. Lorsque ces anomalies sont trà ¨s localisà ©es, comme dans le cas de certaines dà ©formations des nageoires, on peut pratiquer une intervention chirurgicale.